Specific pollutants or classes of pollutants are well known to have damaging effects on the environment, such as ozone (triatomic oxygen) depletion and global warming, and on our health when contaminants are beyond “acceptable” levels. Vineyards are typically situated in areas with low levels of pollution and are therefore not of major concern. This doesn’t mean that pollution should be ignored; however, there has been limited research on the impact of pollution on vineyards. It is a very complex area of research. Let’s examine the chemistry of pollutants and their impact on vine-growing specifically.

The Earth’s atmosphere comprises a number of gases, mainly diatomic nitrogen and oxygen as well as carbon dioxide, and water vapor. And every second of every day, pollutants from car emissions, landfills and industrial processes are released into the atmosphere and react with its constituents. The major pollutants are sulfur oxides, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and when they reach the atmosphere, they react with sunlight and atmospheric (diatomic) oxygen to form harmful substances.

Sulfur dioxide is known to have damaging effects to plants when in high concentrations; it is the result of oxidation of elemental sulfur such as in coal-burning processes. It also reacts with atmospheric oxygen to form sulfur trioxide, which then reacts with water vapor to form sulfuric acid in acid rain. A second component of acid rain is carbonic acid, formed in a similar reaction from emitted carbon dioxide. And the most damaging component is hydrofluoric acid, formed from hydrogen fluoride, released from smelter operations and phosphorous fertilizer production, and water vapor in the atmosphere. When acid rain reaches the soil in vineyards, it lowers the pH thereby throwing soil chemistry off balance making it difficult to grow premium grapes. Some of these acids are particularly corrosive and toxic, and detrimental to vine growing.

Nitrogen oxide is found in car exhaust gas and is the result of the high-heat combustion of (diatomic) nitrogen. In the atmosphere, nitrogen oxide reacts with molecular oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide, the reddish-brown gas responsible for smog. Nitrogen dioxide is then photochemically converted back to nitrogen oxide along with an oxygen atom. The oxygen radical then reacts with molecular oxygen to form ozone in the lower atmosphere. Ozone is a strong irritant and is damaging to vines and crops.

Car exhaust also release hydrocarbons that react with nitrogen oxide to form peroxyacetyl nitrate, a compound belonging to the class of peroxyacyl nitrates, or PANs, powerful toxi-irritants present in photochemical smog that cause ozone to accumulate. PANs are highly damaging to vine physiology resulting in reduced yields. And until leaded (tetraethyl lead) gasoline was phased out, wines produced from vineyards located in close proximity to high-traffic roadways demonstrated higher levels of lead, a potent neurotoxin responsible for lead poisoning. If lead enters the bloodstream, it can interfere with and disable delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD) enzymes responsible for making hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is the iron-containing protein pigment occurring in red blood cells of vertebrates and functioning primarily in the transport of oxygen from the lungs to body tissues. Lead poisoning can then cause irreversible neurological damage as well as abdominal pain, gastrointestinal problems, headaches, anemia, reproductive problems, and a multitude of other effects.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) belong to the class of haloalkanes-that is, they comprise alkanes, such as methane or ethane, with halogens, such as chlorine or fluorine-and are well known to have harmful effects associated with ozone depletion. The halogen in CFCs reacts with ozone to form an oxide of the halogen plus molecular oxygen.

As for pesticides, it has been clearly proven that, environmental impacts notwithstanding, there are negligible residues in wine. Of course this assumes that pesticides are properly applied and well within the recommended treatment period prior to harvest. And the various winemaking processes, namely, crushing, pressing, fermentation, fining, filtration and aging, cause the pesticide residues to disappear.

And what about the thick and heavy smoke from the devastating wildfires of the summer of 2008 that blanketed Northern California wine country? Some red wines from such hard-hit areas as Mendocino County have a decidedly smoky, charred aromas and burnt-wood, ashy tastes. The compounds responsible for smoke taint are guaiacol and 4-methylguaiacol, volatile phenols which are absorbed into grape skins-especially in thin-skinned varieties, such as Pinot Noir-and then extracted during maceration and exacerbated by fermentation. Whites are mainly spared since there is no skin maceration with the juice. Much research has been carried out on smoke-tainted wines in Australia where, in 2003, smoke from wildfires also greatly affected vineyards.

Using reverse osmosis and nanofiltration technologies, the Australians have been able to reduce the culprit compounds down to non-detectable levels. VA Filtration (VAF), a company specializing in such services as removal of volatile acidity (VA), Brett (yeast infection), and TCA (corked wine), claims that they can now eliminate up to ninety-nine percent of the targeted sensorial characteristics by treating affected wine with a food-grade resin developed in Germany. Interestingly, if not puzzling, VAF’s website states that the “offensive compound(s) being removed are still not [known].”

But the astute reader will also know that guaiacol and 4-methylguaiacol are compounds found in toasted oak-aged wines, where they are highly desirable. It’s quite the dichotomy!

Red wine stains are one of the most difficult types of stains to remove. Wine stains can ruin clothes, fabric, furniture and carpets. When red wine is spilled on grout it will be instantly absorbed if the grout has not been properly sealed. Even if the grout has been sealed it can still be stained if spills are allowed to sit on it for a long period of time. There are no sealers on the market today that can protect grout from red wine that has been allowed to sit and dry on the grout.

It goes without saying that it is extremely important to seal your grout before any stains have a chance to be absorbed by the grout. Sealers will prevent spills and stains from being instantly absorbed by the porous grout. If you do spill something on grout that has been sealed then you can instantly use a paper towel or wet sponge to clean up the spill before it stains the grout. It is important to clean up and wipe away any spills that occur on sealed grout because a sealer alone is not enough to totally protect the grout from absorbing spills and stains.

It the grout has not been properly sealed and red wine is spilled on it then the grout will become stained. To remove the stain at this time requires an aggressive cleaning procedure. You should first use a paper towels or a cotton towel to dab up and remove as much of the stain as possible. After this an acidic tile cleaning product is required to remove the red wine stain. You should apply a mild urea based tile and grout cleaning solution to the grout line and let it sit there for 5-10 minutes. Acidic cleaners are required for cleaning up inorganic stains in grout from substances such as wine and mustard. After you let the acidic cleaner react with the wine stain then you should use some type of wet vac to suck out the acidic cleaner from the grout line. Sucking out the acidic cleaning solution and the red wine stain in this way will keep the wine stain from spreading to other parts of the grout.

After using the acidic cleaner on the red wine stain then the grout may still appear to be stained. Actually the acidic cleaner has turned red from reacting with the red wine and what your seeing is red acidic cleaner in the grout line. At this time you should use an alkaline tile and grout cleaning product to neutralize the acidic cleaning solution and remove the red acidic cleaning solution that is still embedded in the grout line. It is also important to neutralize the grout because you do not want the grout to remain in an acidic state because the cements in the grout can start to weaken. Apply the alkaline cleaning solution and allow it to dwell on the stain for 5-10 minutes. After that you can use a mop or sponge to rinse out the grout and you should see that the red wine stain has disappeared. You may need to repeat the complete grout cleaning procedure a couple of times for extremely stained grout but you eventually should see that the red wine stain has disappeared from the grout.

Many in the wine industry talk about the new things in label design that is revolutionizing the industry. These are people who point out that there are new label papers, applications using foil, embossing techniques, shrink sleeves, colors, and scannable labels (QR). Yes, there are some nice new look to wine labels. But, a new approach that will capture the imagination, utilizes captivating technologies, combines tantalizing colors, and has proven research indicating customers are compelled impulsively to pick up and handle the product upon which the label appears. When was the last wine label you saw was one you could experience?

That new label product being promoted to the wine industry is a hologram. Holograms have been around commercially since the mid-70’s. The National Geographic Magazine introduced a small holographic image of an eagle on the cover of a monthly issue. I saw it and was amazed that you could see on side of the eagle and then the opposite side by simply rotating the cover of the magazine.

I was a marketing manager for a company in Manhattan and was so intrigued by the holographic image I wanted to use it our consumer booklets. The major drawback was the price of the holographic image; approximately $2.00 each. Today hologram labels can be done, in volume, for as little as $0.05 each, 1 x 1 inch. Pre-production/set-up costs would be approximately $2,500. A front label for wine could cost approximately $0.74 each for a 4 x 3-inch size.

“Actual costs depend on how sophisticated the ultimate image needs to be to get the desired visual effect,” says Mr. Alec Jeong, General Sales Manager at Integraf, a supplier of holographic labels. “For a high-quality hologram, pre-production can start as low as $1000 for something simple as a logo or go as high as $8000 for a gorgeous display that combines 3-D depth, animation and stunning reflections.”

What makes holograms so interesting? Holography is a photographic technique that records the light scattered from an object, and then presents it in a way that appears three-dimensional. In the 70’s the object to appear in 3-D the model had to be in the actual size off the image to be generated on a special paper using lasers.

New techniques now allow 3-D images to be generated using computer graphics modeling that can be applied to laser type imaging to generate 3-D effects.

What makes the application of 3-D holographic labels so interesting for the wine industry?

· Holographic images produce 3-D effect that capture consumer attention when pursuing shelves of wine. Applications can be tailored for vertical or horizontal bottle displays.

· Producing a 3-D label today is cost effective.

· Holograms can be utilized to combat counterfeiting of some wines.

· Holographic images can be tailored for many marketing requirements-branding, neck hangars, and attention grabbers for passing consumers walking an aisle. For example, some holograms can be produced that will produce a burst of light as you pass by a hologram label.

· The whole label does not need to be made as a hologram.

· These labels do speak to the millennial generation who is technology savvy. This demographic does represent over 60% of the wine market and is fueling the growth in wine sales.

Ms. Toni Hamilton, Director of Marketing at ASL Print FX, has established some guidelines for effective wine labels. Do holograms conform to her guidelines? She asks, for example, on a store shelf will the label command attention in 3 seconds? Some research already performed by Integra indicates holographic images perform well. Will a holographic image reflect the wine, the winery and the target market? Every demographic responds to messages and the delivery format of a message differently. Research and testing would be the judge; more on market applications follow. Lastly, in almost all market demographics labels need to be fun, can have humor, should employ unique graphics and may be somewhat bizarre.

A label design firm in Napa has said there are exceptions to most rules about good labels-critter images on labels however are passé.

We know wine labels are/may be: art, informational (partly by law), entertainment, and used to influence consumer action. The following are some thoughts about the interaction of a wine label with the consumer.

As a consumer, do you think we are immune to marketing manipulation tactics; we’re much too smart for that trick, right? But, we should not be defensive about wine marketing tactics because the label can give us a lot of information (not just the legalese) about brand choices available to us. Labels create enduring loyalty, stimulate trials of new wines, foster enjoyment/expectations (the psychology mental expectations) and allow us to relate to the creators of some of our favorite wines/wineries and winemakers. Combined with the internet, we can now be more educated about our wine purchases and become educated brand evangelist for great inexpensive as well as expensive wines.

The life and value of a wine label is based upon research and testing. And research shows, “The more the consumer likes the label, the more they like the wine.” At least that is according to Mr. David Schuemann, Owner of CF Napa Brand Design a top-rated label design and marketing firm in wine country.

David Ogilvy, an advertising industry icon, had many quotes about using visuals to sell products. One I appreciate, which can be applied to holographic wine labels, “If you grab attention in the first frame (being applied to TV commercials) with a visual surprise, you stand a better chance of holding the viewer. People screen out a lot of commercials because they open with something dull.” “On the average, five times as many people read the headline as read the body copy.”

Other than advertising (print, TV, direct response), the wine industry generally has a major marketing tool in their bag of tricks to reach the consumer and motivate the consumer toward that first trial: the label is a major tool in the bag. The label can’t carry and perpetuate a bad brand, product or image to success. But, it will encourage a trial and then on to a repeat customer.

Wine Business Monthly has reported, in the Hispanic marketplace 70% of the purchasing decision on wine is price related, recommendations account for 40% and label design represents 14% of the buying decision. Obviously, there is a lot of cross-over between categories, but the relative importance of wine labels is enough to make it important in selling wine. If family recommendations came about due to a label initiated trial and a follow-on recommendation, labels could impact sales by nearly 30%-trials and re-purchases.

Mr. Kyle Swartz, reported in Beverage Dynamics, January 2016: “Regarding labels, 46% of women said they were intrigued by “traditional/classic/sophisticated” designs. 39% were intrigued by “fun and fanciful” looks, while 37% noticed labels that indicated “organic/sustainable” wines. “Witty and clever” attracted 36% of respondents, and “benefitting a cause I’m interested in” intrigued 30%.” Do you think any of these responses play into the holographic label discussion?

These comments are important given that 83% of wine is bought by women, of which 36% are millennials and are mostly focused on purchasing experiences not just the product itself. With the U.S. being the largest wine market in the World, labels are extremely important. It is noted also that Swartz reports, 53% of women do browse labels. As noted by Ogilvy-The first frame (substitute “visual impression” for our discussion) will cause further exploration.

Wine is back in the spotlight for growth, primarily attributed to millennials. As a demographic, millennials represent approximately 60% of the U.S. market and are focused on wine purchases in the $11 to $20 bottle of wine. However, label strategies are not necessarily driven by the price of a bottle of wine. At ALL price points for any product, the product is repurchased based upon a price to value relationship. No one buys Two Buck Chuck thinking the quality/value is a bottle to be racked for 10 years or put up in a fine wine auction at Christy’s. But at any price point labels will generate trials for the value proposition and that is communicated with a brand strategy.

In an attempt to show that I am not out of touch with reality. We all recognize there are many components that influence our decision on wine purchases, other than acquired/established personal preferences for a specific wine. For this discussion, we are focused on the tactile and visual ques that cause us to do a first try of a wine we see on the self-these are not listed in any order or inclusiveness.

· Price

· Label design

· Weight of bottle/product

· Closure type (cork or screw top-plastic plugs would not be visible under foil)

· Wine description on front and back labels

· Varietal/style

· Appellation/AVA

· Familiarity with the wine producer

· Recommendations (friends or retailer or winery)

As an aside: More recently there has been a lot of attention paid to the wine market in China. Here the label is very important because of the traditional importance of images and colors. Interestingly, colors such as red, gold and yellow connote wealth, good luck and elegance.

I came across a 2010 study authored by Vince Bonofede from California Polytechnic State University. The title of the research is- ANALYSIS OF WINE LABEL DESIGN AESTHETICS AND THE CORRELATION TO PRICE. Contrary to the title of the study it did touch on issues of label design on wine selection. The study was based upon mathematical and regression analysis and looked at 7 categories of rules relative to design aesthetics.

After complex analysis Bonofede concludes, “Ultimately wine is meant to be enjoyed, not a stressful walk down the wine isle. If a wine label is what grabs your attention first, then go for it and enjoy.” That is to say, if a wine label was aesthetically pleasing to the consumer (i.e. color, shapes, font sizes, etc.), then the label could have an overall effect on the consumer’s opinion of the wine (Burnhard, Martin, and Troncoso (2008).

I think holographic labels will soon be making inroads on wine labels. Certainly, the use of such images will promote product trials, conversation, reading labels for information, promote branding and promote a product and winery image that is long lasting. The frequency and impressions of such a label need to be explored as a component of marketing.

I notice numerous ads appearing in wine industry newsletters that advertise bulk wines for sale and often wondered why there is this classification of wine for sale and who buys such wine. I see ads for a lot of California bulk wines as well as some of these wine sales from Oregon, Washington, and from East Coast wineries and vineyards. And with some frequency it is not unusual to see ads for wines sales coming from many international wine regions.

Bulk wine is another facet of the wine industry that is not understood by the casual wine consumer, but it is a major contributor to the growth of the wine industry. What is bulk wine and grapes? This wine comes from surplus production at a winery that has not yet made it into the bottle and labeled. There is also a segment of the market where wineries and vineyards produce wine only for the bulk market. There are also brands that have no winery and rely on the bulk market to create their brand. Bulk grapes, like wine, come from a winery's vineyard or an independent vineyard. These grapes are sold by the ton at time of harvest; often a year in advance.

Bulk wine is of a known quality that is tasted by a buyer prior to the purchase. Brokers that sell wines without a home never take possession of the wine, but still have licensing requirement from the Tax and Trade Bureau of the Department of the Treasury. Point being, bulk wine is a high-quality wine that has a pedigree-it has a known producer, known quality, historic characteristics and is easily sampled / tasted by the buyer.

With year over year growth in US 2016 wine sales of 2.8%, it would be easy to assume that all the wine produced would have a market based upon demand. Vineyard planted acreage in California is expected to be flat in 2017 versus 2016, with 15,000 new acres being planted; mostly in San Lois Obispo Coastal area. (Planted vineyard acreage numbers are misleading as there is acreage removed when vines are removed for replanting.) Even with changes in the wine market worldwide, the market for bulk wine and grapes continue growing and the reasons for the growth are complex and numerous. So, the question that begs clarification / amplification is: What happens to surplus wine and grapes?

Surplus wine can basically be bought by anyone. There are many wine labels on the market that comes from surplus wines or even bulk grapes. For example, someone could buy the wine, have it delivered to a winery, work their blending magic on that wine, do the bottling and ship to a distributor.

Now you want to know how this bulk wine impacts you as a consumer. Let's assume you go to a restaurant or a friend's home and you experience a wine you absolutely love, you go home and try to find the winery that produced the wine so you can buy it online or maybe you want to schedule a visit. To your surprise, you cannot find the winery. The wine you are excited about may have come from an accomplished winemaker who bought bulk wines from which he blended / bottled / labeled that new favorite wine you just discovered. The bulk wine was most likely sold by a "bulk wine" broker, of which there are many. Many around the globe, only a few in each country.

The largest global surplus wine and grape broker is The Ciatti Company in Northern California. They have been selling these wine and grapes around the world for 46 years. "In an average day, we initiate or receive approximately 4,000 conversation about selling or buying bulk wines," says Steve Dorfman-Partner at Ciatti. "Mostly the bulk market is a business-to-business transaction that range from extremely large wineries with global brands, to start-up companies with a vision for a new brand." Home winemakers are not the target market for bulk brokers. For example, some of their wine transactions are for more than 10,000 gallons.

This type of wine business is different than the custom crush sector of the wine business. Such wines comes from a winery that, generally, has produced a fermented product that may or may not be a varietal wine. Custom crush is mostly a process of acquiring grapes, crush, fermenting and bottling wine to a specific specification by a specific customer.

The surplus wine and grape business is the soft underbelly of the wine business. This business is large and doesn't just apply to a winery with surplus juice. There are wineries and vineyards that exist only for the exclusive production of bulk wine. Simply, there are vineyards (as well as wineries) that only cater to a market that expects to buy bulk wine from which they label as their own brand. In the case of bulk grapes, some wineries and wine brands forecast their needs for grapes for their planned production for the next vintage. In the winter months, bulk grape brokers are busy selling next year harvest and / or beyond from vineyard production. Some bulk grape buyers can even specify grapes by clone; then bulk brokers try to match sellers and buyers.

What is the process of acquiring bulk wines? Remember, this typle of wine is basically a finished product.

· Phone call or e-mail starts the process. The buyer has a defined style of wine needed for a specific label or for blending, or a varietal style. Some bulk wines may be acquired to test a new wine product concept being contemplated by a winery or private label.

· Then define the requirements relative to ABV, acidity, tannins, color, and aromas. Based on these specifics a bulk broker can select specific bulk wines to have sample wines shipped overnight for buyer analysis / tasting. Maybe there are requirements relative to a very specific source of the fruit / AVA.

· Customer / buyer tastings of the initial sample might result in other options being sourced and new samples provided.

· Eventually it comes down to pricing. Bulk wine and grapes are still a function of market condition. "Market conditions are a function of availability, quality, prestige of the initial producer, trends in customer preferences, and demand," says Dorfman. "Nothing about the bulk wine business is a constant."

· After price is negotiated by the seller and customer, a Memorandum of Understanding is signed outlining terms, condition of the wine or fruit, shipping requirements and terms.

Now, the deal is done.

For their efforts, most bulk wine companies work on an established commission schedule; generally established by country of origin. The commission is generally between 2 and 4% based on the country of origin.

As noted previously, it would be wrong to assume surpluses (grapes or wine) are a result of over-production. It is entirely plausible that wineries or vineyards plan for excesses that can be sold to fund a small / limited private production or testing new wine ideas. Wineries that own their own vineyards often plan excess production for reasons of economies of scale for certain grapes they need for established in-house labels.

And there are wineries and vineyards (not producing wine under their own label) that exist only to supply the negociant market, private label producers and wineries needing additional wines for their brands. Some of the largest wineries buy bulk wine because they did not produce enough for expanded production or had issues with current supplies. The purchase of bulk wines seems to offer new and established winemakers a low risk option. An example is Cameron Hughes Wines which started with an initial small bulk purchase, then their growth accelerated in the following few years.

Ray Isle writing for Food & Wine explains the negociant as: first started in Burgundy, purchasing grapes or finished wine from the region's myriad small estates, then blending, bottling and selling the wine under the négociant's name. Some of the best, and best-known, Burgundy producers are primarily négociants-including Jadot, Drouhin, and Bouchard Père & Fils.

As a rule of thumb, there is generally no such thing as a good or bad wine, only wines looking for a fit. "At Ciatti we know that there is always going to be an application for all bulk varietals or bulk blends. Every winemaker experiences issues in the production of their wines that can be solved with an available bulk wine," said Dorfman. With 55% of their business being domestic and 45% international there seems to be a home for quality bulk wine someplace in the world.

On occasion, there can be times when bulk wine doesn't sell someplace in the world. For those rare occasions, bulk wine can find a place as food grade vinegar or distilled into brandy.

Although bulk wine is a business-to-business, bulk wine brokers, will spend time developing potential new buyers that have a sound plan. The start of such a relationship always starts with some free advice – don't buy the wine first then start thinking about a sound business plan. "I have seen customers buy wine first then work on the marketing plan, TTB requirements, labeling and then lastly start looking for customers," comments Dorfman. The very first order of business is to know where and how you will sell your proposed brand. Second, contact the TTB and start the licensing process and know the laws governing your business. While at the TTB you will find labeling requirements to be a very difficult process for the uninitiated. Designing a label can be a quasi-scientific and laborious process. Dorfman commented that he was aware of a group expecting to launch their own label within a few months of buying their wine. Four years later, they finally launched their new wine. The problem was that they bought the wine first without understanding state and Federal laws, labeling approvals and having reliable commitments from customers.

Wine is not as simple as crushing grapes, turning juice to wine, putting wine in a bottle with a cork and delivering that wine to a retailer. The iterations and nuances in the wine industry are complex and convoluted and highly controlled. Fortunately for the consumer we only see the industry when we drive through the vineyards of wine country.

You definitely should consider drinking red wine if you drink alcohol. Considering the health benefits of red wine and how enjoyable the experience can be, I think that red wine is the logical choice for the drinker.

Let us begin by looking at the health benefits of red wine. To understand these benefits requires a short explanation: Red wines are a rich source of biologically active compounds known as phytochemicals, which are chemicals found in plants. In particular, phytochemicals called polyphenols are found in red wine. Two polyphenols in red wine are catechins and resveratrol, both of which are antioxidants. Antioxidants are any substance that reduces oxidative damage (damage due to oxygen such as that caused by free radicals). Free radicals are highly reactive chemicals that attack molecules by capturing electrons and thus modifying chemical structures. Resveratrol not only provides antioxidant protection from free-radical damage, but it helps to protect LDL cholesterol against oxidation, promotes optimal cardiovascular health, supports and supports healthy aging and normal cell growth. Catechin, on the other hand, appears to play an important role in reducing the risk of heart disease. Another antioxidant called Saponin, is also found in red wine and it also may offer protective benefits for the heart and is easily absorbed by the body.

Antioxidants may possibly reduce the risks of cancer and age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Antioxidants clearly slow the progression of AMD. Please note the benefits of antioxidants listed here should not be considered an exhaustive list. There are many additional benefits that have been linked with antioxidants: I really introduce some here so that you get a sense of the benefits of these substances.

Additionally a fairly recent study has correlated moderate consumption of red wine with balanced blood sugar. This is certainly a noteworthy correlation.

Let me conclude with a caveat: While drinking red wine can indeed benefit your health, only responsible drinking can do so. Excessive drinking can of course have very negative ramifications. On the other hand, moderate consumption can become an enjoyable hobby that allows you to really experience a variety of red wines and the amazing flavours that red wine has to offer. There are thousands of different red wines out there (well more like hundreds of thousands); which in turn means there is an abundance of flavours out there – for you to enjoy and at the same time benefit your health. Once you develop more of a palate for red wines, you will subsequently improve your ability to distinguish between the various aspects of wine. Once you begin to drink red wine, you should get yourself a beginner’s guide to wine and should consider taking some courses on wine. That way you can have a really enjoyable hobby and it can be quite fun to learn the dialect and really experience the nuances of distinction. Before I conclude, let’s look at what moderate consumption of red wine means: One to two glasses a day for men and one glass a day for women. Also note that abstaining from drinking red wine throughout the week and then drinking these amounts on the weekend does not constitute moderate intake; that would be unhealthy.

People have been making wine for about 8,000 years our of grapes and other fruit juices. But how did they do it in ancient times?

Did they have the yeast? Did they have sterilized containers to make it in? Did they even know what sterilized meant?

Ancient hieroglyphs in the early Mesopotamian culture indicate that they did have knowledge of how to make wine. But those glyphs go on to tell us a little more…

First of all, grapes that grow in the wild or in vineyards have their own yeast on the outside of the skins. Now isn’t that handy? If you harvest grapes and crush them to get the juice out BUT leave the grape skins in, the mixture will ferment all by itself because of the naturally occurring yeast. In most cases, the natural yeast is NOT the yeast that we would use today but it apparently served it’s purpose back in ancient times.

But, if you wanted to, you could make wine the same way our ancestors did and just let nature do the fermentation for you with the naturally occurring yeast. It won’t be as strong in alcohol as it would if you used some currently available commercial winemaking yeast, but it will still do the trick.

But what about the necessity to have everything cleaned and sterilized before starting? Surely there was no way to accomplish this back in ancient times…

Well – yes and no. It is mentioned several times in many ancient texts that silver has an antibacterial effect. To this day we know that silver kills bacteria or severely inhibits bacterial growth. The ancients could start their wine in large silver lined containers and let it ferment in them.

Once the alcohol content was high enough, the wine itself and the alcohol it contains is enough to keep bugs from growing.

Fast forward to today’s times and we use sulfites to both preserve wine and to keep bugs or other bacteria frowing in the juice while it is fermenting. By the way, sulfites are a LOT cheaper than silver lined containers!

The ideal temperature to store wines is between 55ºF and 58ºF (13ºC-15ºC).
However, any temperature between 40º-65ºF (5º-18ºC) will suffice as long as it
remains constant.

The degree and the speed of the temperature change are critical. A gradual change
of a few degrees between summer and winter won't matter. The same change each
day will harm your wines by ageing them too rapidly.

The most important rule when storing wine is to avoid large temperature changes or
fluctuations. You'll notice damage of this nature straight away from the sticky
deposit that often forms around the capsule. Over time the continual expansion and
contraction of the wine will damage the 'integrity' of the cork. It's like having the
cork pulled in and out again every day. When this happens, minute quantities of
wine may be pushed out along the edge of the cork (between the cork and the
bottle neck) allowing air to seep back in. Once the air is in contact with your wine
the irreversible process of oxidation begins and your wine is ruined.

At 55º to 58ºF the wine will age properly, enabling it to fully develop. Higher
temperatures will age wine more rapidly and cooler temperatures will slow down the
ageing process. Irreversible damage will be done if your wine is kept at a
temperature above 82ºF for even a month.

At 55 ° F wines will age slowly and develop great complexity and you will never have
to worry about them.

Every wine you buy should be placed in your cellar. Even if you are planning on
opening the wine shortly after purchase it will benefit from resting to recover from
the shock of traveling.

Before any bottle makes it into your cellar you need to consider the treatment it
received before you acquired it.

Every wine lover knows that heat damages wine but how many of us take care to
protect our wine at every stage? For example, you buy wine at a shop or winery, but
leave it in your hot car all afternoon. You get it home to your temperature-
controlled cellar, but by then you may have already cooked it. Remember that high
temperatures can result in undesirable chemical reactions that would not normally
take place.

For several years wine making has been practiced through the process called as vinification, this is a very simple method as compared to the other methods of making alcoholic beverages. The process of wine making involves six basic steps:

1. Viticulture

2. Harvesting

3. Crushing

4. Fermentation

5. Clarifying the solution

6. Bottling

Viticulture: As a known fact the flavor of the wine is dependent on the kind of grapes which are used. The variety of grapes depends on the place where they are grown, the climate of the place where they are grown, the drainage system around the winery, the quality of the soil, humidity content of the region and even the exposure levels to the sun. Other than these factors, one of the most important which is an important determinant in the making of wine is the techniques used to make the wine. In fact the different wineries formulate a customized wine making procedure according to the needs of their winery, so that they can bring out the best flavors of their grapes.

Harvesting: The next step in the winemaking process is the harvesting of the finely cultivated grapes. When the grapes are ripped and harvested it is very important that the timing of ripping the grapes is apt and the exact timing can be ascertained through experience. The timing of the ripping the grapes should be such that the grapes have the apt combination of sugar, acid and moisture. The harvesting of the grapes can be either done manually or mechanically, however majority of the grape wineries rip it manually.

Crushing: The next step after the grapes have been harvested is to crush and press so as to have their inherent flavors in the form of liquid. As the fruits are crushed the grapes withdraw their moisture content and the sugars. Many wineries make the usage of specialized machines for the process of crushing and pressing the grapes. The resultant liquid which is formed after crushing and pressing the wines is referred to as must, at this stage the wine will either turn into red color or white color depending on the preference of the winemaker. The wines become red when they are simply left after they are crushed because in this stage juices from the skin and the flavors are ripped off, thus when you leave the must for a certain period of time, the wine become red wine, and in case you immediately crush the wine after pressing and segregate the skin then the wine becomes white wine.

Fermentation: After the grapes are being crushed and pressed, the fermentation takes place since the grapes have good quantity of sugar and moisture they easily get fermented with the reaction of wild yeast. Fermentation takes almost 10 to 30 days, however this depends on the quality of grapes and the climate.

Clarifying the solution: The next step in wine making is clarifying the solution. It is also referred to as stabilization.

Bottling: The final stage is to transfer the clarified solution in the wooden barrels or bottles.

Whether you are already making your own wine or just pondering jumping into the rapidly growing hobby, one thing that you will want to experiment with is adding or changing the flavor of your wine.

Sometimes, just fermenting the fruit or grape juice doesn’t produce a taste that seems “full”. There seems to be something missing.

What can you do? How can you round out the taste?

Here’s 3 different things you can do that will improve the fullness of the taste of your homemade wines.

Oaking

You can give your wine an aok flavor very easily. There are two ways to do this. You can add oak chips before the fermentation or after the fermentation. There are even 3 different flavors of oak chips.

Oak chip manufacturers try to duplicate the charring found inside the big barrels that are used to age wine in. There are light toast, medium toast and heavy toast chips. The toast part simply means how much charring from a flame there is on the chips.

You just add these chips directly to your must or your wine and let them soak.

Another oaking method preferred by a lot of home winemakers is to flavor some vodka with oak chips and then just pour some of the oaked vodka into the wine to add and oaky flavor.

Sugar

Some people prefer their wines a little less than dry. Some like their wine downright sweet.

The secret to sweetening wines is this: you have to make sure the wine is stabilized before adding any sugar or sugar water. You can stabilize your wine using potassium sorbate, a common food preservative. This takes place after all of the fermentation is complete and the wine has mostly cleared.

How much do you add? Just sweeten to taste. Add a little sugar water, and taste. That’s all there is to it.

Glycerin

If your wine seems a little thin, you can thicken it up by adding glycerin. Glycerin will give your wine “legs” and a somewhat better mouthfeel. Legs don’t really have anything to do with the taste as much as the ability of the wine to cling to the sides of a wine glass.

Glycerin will give your wine a more rounded and smoother feel in your mouth when you are drinking the wine.

Try these 3 winemaking tips on your next batch of wine. You could surprise yourself!

The production of fine wines in Spain began many centuries ago when the Phoenicians (who were great sea traders) introduced the concept to the locals. Needless to say the tradition took root and Spain’s wine culture today has received critical acclaim internationally.

Spanish wine is categorized under a well-appointed production system that ensures the aging process is strictly observed. The ConsejoRegulador (Regulating Authority) is responsible for ascertaining the classification and aging grade of each wine.

Each aging level of a Spanish wine, whether red, rose or white wines is given it’s own name. These terms also tell something about the production process, characteristics and complexity of each age level.

The following is a list of the most important ages and some basic information for each:

Joven

The word “Joven” is Spanish for young, and these wines are usually released for consumption within a few years at the most. Most of these wines will see little or no aging in oak barrels and are identified as still being quite “fruity” when ready to be served.

Barrica and Roble

Wines labeled “barrica” or “roble” have seen some oak barrel aging maybe even as much as 4 months or more. “Barrica” comes from the French “barrique” which means barrel and Roble is the Spanish word for Oak. These wines are also meant to be drunk within a couple years of release as well, like Joven wines.

Crianza

“Crianza”, which means “nurturing” or “nursing” in Spanish. This is the term for wines that have been aged in oak barrels considerably longer than a Barrica or Roble. Some regions require that their crianza wines are aged for at least 6 months, in more prestigious regions crianza wines receive as much as 12 months aging in oak barrels.

Crianza wines must be aged for a minimum of 2 years, either in their bottle or in barrels. The oak process gives these wines a smoother overtone. These wines also last as much as 5 years in the bottle. Wine makers usually select higher quality grapes for the production of Crianzas than they would for a Barrica, Joven or Roble.

Reserva

“Reserva”, meaning “reserved” or “held back”, is the term for wines that are aged even longer, 36 months at least before releasing and with no less than 12 – 24 months of aging in oak barrels.

If a vintage does not meet the specifications set by the ConsejoRegulador they may not allow the wine maker to label their wine as “Reserva”. Wine makers use only top quality grapes for this long and intricate process to produce a very smooth, complex and full-bodied wine capable of being stored for up to 10 years after release.

Gran Reserva

Only the best vintages will bear the honorary mark of being “Gran Reserva”. These wines are considered the very best of their kind. They are made from only the best fruits carefully selected from the proper region to produce a wine like no other; they are also not produced prolifically as with other wines.

The aging process for a Gran Reserva is also long, approximately 60 months in total, and often well over 24 months in oak barrels.

After learning the various age labels of Spanish wine it also important to get familiarized with the various types of grapes as well as the regions of Spanish wine country.