How To Set Yourself Free Using The Digital Economy

The digital economy is booming, and there’s never been a better time to learn how to shift your income from trading time for money, to automating sales online to generate an income.

Many people simply aren’t aware that this opportunity exists. Then there’s the question of “how is this done?”, and of course “can I do this?”

Some of the main resistances to change are mental in nature and overcoming scepticism is one of the main difficulties many face when presented with this idea.

It’s far easier to shut down the possibility, than to have to make changes in your lifestyle and belief system in order to make it happen. But all belief systems and habits aside, how does anyone make a living on the internet, and over what timescale are we talking about?

A business model known as affiliate marketing lets anyone promote someone’s product and earn a commission from it. You don’t need to own a product yourself, talk to any customers or even handle any products. That’s all done for you. All affiliates do is send website traffic to products and services they recommend.

Imagine you recommend a nice restaurant to a friend. Well, affiliate marketing is the same thing, only if your friend visits the restaurant and buys a meal, you’ll receive a commission. The concept itself is fairly simple, it’s the ‘how’ which is a little more tricky.

Putting that aside for a moment, just imagine how many people are on the internet looking for a particular product or service. There are millions! Just a small slice of those purchases is enough to get you out of a difficult working environment and working for yourself, from your laptop, from anywhere.

What’s great about affiliate marketing is that you can compound your efforts over time. You can get adverts or content ‘working for you’ running 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. What’s even better is the power of scalability. Once you’ve found a strategy which works, you can scale up to a global audience. With digital products, postage and storage isn’t an issue. And you can earn up to 40% commission on digital products.

Let’s back up a little and look again at the title of this article “How to set yourself free in the digital economy”. What is freedom semantics aside, for many, it’s the ability to create income without a boss, job or employer. It’s the ability to earn money without feeling miserable or trapped.

Being free can mean many things. For the purposes of this article, it means being financially free and freedom to choose who you spend time with and how you spend your time. That’s real freedom for many. It’s often the opposite of working in a job you don’t enjoy for the sake of financial gain, or, worse still, just to keep your head above the water.

But what does it take to build a life of freedom? Can you do it too? Not everyone can achieve this kind of freedom. The reason for most is a crippling belief system which keeps them chained to a 9 to 5 job, in a situation which doesn’t serve them, because it meets some other needs. Security, ambition, status, duty or simply meeting your immediate needs are some reasons people don’t venture out of what they believe is possible.

Of course an internet business can be built alongside a normal job too. That’s one of it’s most appealing benefits for many. But it’s often someone’s beliefs which stops them from even attempting to change their situation and circumstances.

So, an internet business is a means to set yourself free using the digital economy. By setting up small ‘trickles’ of income, by promoting and selling affiliate products, anyone can, over time, build an income which is completely independent of their time. Most people are trapped in the equation of trading their time for money. Affiliate marketing is a means to escape this trap and ‘leverage’ the internet to make sales, even while you sleep.

This doesn’t happen overnight of course. It’s a business like any other. However, an internet business can offer the ability to use automation and digital products to earn commissions. This has a two-fold benefit. Automation means your business can run without you. Digital products can be sold globally without needing postage or handling. Owners of affiliate products can afford therefore to pay affiliates more for the selling of these products.

Put all that together and you’ve got a huge robotic income machine – potentially. Once it’s up and running, you simply need to ‘tweak’ it and scale it up. There’s a lot involved in this process too. It’s not easy and most people don’t have a strong enough reason to make it happen.

But if your life is not working for you, you feel trapped or unfulfilled, an internet business can allow dramatic changes to happen in your life. Providing you work hard on your business, an on yourself.

The Difference Between a Theodolite and a Total Station

Both are tools used to measure horizontal and vertical angles during surveying and engineering projects. Each have particular pros and cons which can be utilized in various situations. In general, it will depend on the time, money, man power, and expertise you have available when deciding on the right tool for your job.

Although theodolites have been used for hundreds of years, the main operation of these tools remains the same. A theodolite consists of a moveable telescope mounted between a vertical and horizontal axes. The angle of each axes can be measured with fairly accurate precision as long as the operator has sufficient knowledge of the tool’s use and basic trigonometry. However, the use of a theodolite generally requires the help of at least one other person besides the main operator to help measure and align angles. When precision counts, it is imperative that both operators are properly trained and understand all of the elements of gathering data; this may include leveling the tripod/theodolite and measuring stake, as well as aligning the stake and measuring line to gather accurate data, and finally use mathematical and graphical skills to generate the appropriate output.

The benefits of a total station will outweigh the downsides, in most cases, because of its all-inclusive features and digital integration. These tools integrates theodolite functions in order to measure angles and distance with an EDM (electronic distance meter). They also use a system of prisms and lasers to develop digital readings of all the measurements during your job. All of the information gathered with the total station is stored in an external computer where data can be manipulated and added to CAD programs. Robotic total stations are available that allow the operator to work alone with the use of a remote control.

A total station is generally superior to a theodolite because of its digital integration and precision. However, total stations are much more expensive and require not only surveying training, but specific product and software training as well. When completing surveying jobs that span large distances, especially over treacherous terrain, a total station will provide the most reliable and accurate results. For simple plots of smaller areas, a theodolite is sufficient. Before you purchase either tool, ensure it comes with the necessary accessories you’ll need on the job. For a theodolite you will want a measuring stake and steel tape, a tripod, as well as grid paper and a pencil to record the data. In most cases, a total station will come with all the necessary accessories you need, however, some may not so always double check!

Digital Marketing Online Certification Training Course – Get Certified by Google

Did you know you could get certified by Google? Google provides a number of Digital Marketing training courses to help enhance marketing skills, some of them absolutely free of cost! Digital Marketing courses are not only helpful to those working in the field but also incredibly useful to entrepreneurs trying to make it in this fast-paced business environment. It is crucial in today’s business situation to have a working knowledge of each and every aspect of the business, and while courses are widely available for a range of other aspects, Digital Marketing was a subject rarely touched upon.

However, Google is helping millions of like minded individuals worldwide with an interest in the subject by providing these free courses. We’ve mentioned the top 5 courses you can enroll in, with Google today!

AdWords Fundamental Course

Learn the basic and intermediate aspects of AdWords and advertising online. The course touches up on how to set up AdWords, manage a campaign and also teaches you how to measure and optimize your AdWords campaign. You can take on the assessment after going through the study material and earn a Certification from Google. The assessment consists of 65 questions that need to be completed within an hour and a half. To earn the certification, you’ll need to score above 80%. The test is also available to take again in case you don’t make the cut the first time.

Squared Online

This program is a 5-month training course, 6 hours per week. Squared Online is a Digital Marketing Leadership course created by Google in partnership with Home Learning College. You will be guided by Industry experts and the course takes a unique, practical approach for training. This is a great course for anyone looking to boost their Digital Marketing training skills. The course focuses on Evaluating the relationship between digital innovations and changing consumer behavior and communicating how this relationship will evolve in the future. You will learn how to propose how an organization can build an effective digital presence that concentrates on consumer engagement and organizational objectives and how to use data from a variety of sources to generate insights and make strategic commendations amongst other important skills.

AdWords Display Certification

This online course teaches you to create, manage and optimize Display campaigns. It will also help you take advantage of Google Display Network with Display campaign settings. The Pre-requisite to take this course however is to complete the AdWords Fundamentals Course, which covers the basics. You can take an assessment to earn the certification. This is a beginner course and the material is always online, meaning you can take your time to study and take the assessment as you please.

Google Analytics Individual Qualification

This Google course covers basic and advanced Analytics concepts including planning, analytics principles, implementation, data collection, configuration, administration, conversion, attribution, reports, metrics and dimensions. Once you study the material provided, you can do this on your own time and it’s free, you can take the Google Analytics Assessment consisting of 70 questions to be completed within a time period of 90 minutes. To earn the certification for this course, you will need a score of 80% and above.

Google Digital Unlocked

Having partnered with the Indian School of Business in Hyderabad and FICCI, the content covered in the course will provide a foundation for basic Digital Skills. The course begins right from the basics with an Introduction and understanding of Digital Media. You will learn how to plan online strategies, gain insights on new developments in the digital world, build an online presence, be noticed by ads, work with Analytics and much more. It’s a full ranged course and you can take your time going through the material. There are small assessments for every topic, once you pass them, you can move on to the next topic and complete the course to earn your certification.

Features of Point and Shoot Nikon Digital Cameras

Point and shoot Nikon digital cameras are very popular photography enthusiasts. Some of the best qualities of this type of a digital camera are small size, lightweight, easy usability and pocket-friendship. There are some exclusive features of point and shoot cameras that attract many buyers. Some of the commonly found features of point and shoot digi cams are explained below:

  • Higher Megapixels: In layman's terms, higher the megapixel of camera, better is the quality of pictures. If you just want to view your photos on computer and send them across to your friends and family through email, then you would not need a higher megapixel cam. For printing larger sized photos or portraits, cameras with higher megapixel, such as Nikon Coolpix 5400 digital camera, are better. However, one thing to keep in mind here is that photos with more megapixels would need more computer space.
  • Different Modes For Taking Pictures: Nikon digital cameras come with built-in screen modes that let you customize the pictures that you take. If you want to take photos of your child running on his sports day, there is a sports mode which sets the internal setting of the cam for taking better images of fast action. There is a Night Time mode if you want to click pictures at night or in the dark; for taking pictures of landscapes, there is a Scenic mode and for taking photos of people, there is a Portrait mode.
  • Video Shooting: Nowadays, digi cams let you shoot video in motion. That means you can record a live event, a function or some landmark moment of your life through a digi cam. However, the duration of the video depends on the memory of the camera. If you want to shoot bigger videos, you would need to increase your cam's memory by inserting an SD card.
  • Point and shoot Nikon digital cameras provide the ultimate comfort and ease of use when it comes to taking pictures. Experience the amazing features of these cameras by buying one for yourself!

    Why Do You Need Digital Marketing for Business?

    Digital marketing has changed the conventional business strategies completely. Since people are relying more on digital data, companies start taking the digital platform seriously. Business follows consumers no matter where they are. Marketing strategies are changed as per the requirement of the companies. Getting a good rank on the result page of the search engine is as much necessary as having a proper marketing plan for the business. From startups to established names, every company must adopt a unique strategy to target the market. This form of marketing comes up with enormous benefits for business, from increasing profit margins to brand values. The content below discusses why you need digital marketing for your business.

    Help you improve brand image:

    If you have brand values more than others, your business will go towards the positive note with profits and success. Digital media are helping business entities grow their brand values with proper strategies. Like brick and mortar stores, online outlets also count footfalls. Getting traffic to a website is no longer a difficult task since Search Engine Optimization (SEO) ensures makes a website user-friendly and trustworthy. Through digital media, a two-way communication is made between companies and consumers. This helps them post their reviews and feedbacks about a purchase or a company. Positive reviews help you set up a strong brand image.

    Encourage consumer engagement:

    Users’ engagement plays an important when it comes to growing your business. Social media are the great platforms where you can measure the engagement through interesting posts. To give you the best business, Social Media Marketing (SMM) strategies are there that help you. SMM is an innovative way to attract users’ interest. Companies are running various ad campaigns on the social media to enlarge their target network. The craze of ‘Like, Share and Comment’ should not be ignored because it spreads your business goals like fire. If your content is interesting, users will share the content with others. Thus, you will enhance your consumer group.

    Make the marketing plan stronger and better:

    Digital marketing overruns the traditional business methods. The conventional process has a little scope to know or monitor the competitors’ goals and strategies. With large data being shared digitally every day, companies can track others’ business well. They get information about the new product details, discounts and offers of the competitors.

    Earlier, small companies did not get enough resources to compete with the big names. The world of business turned completely. Small companies or startups are also playing well and giving the established firms a tough competition. Right tool and right tactics of digital marketing can make a big difference. It is all about how well you can connect with your consumers.

    Offer huge options for your business:

    Digital marketing is a large and vast concept to understand. It is made of many related theories like SEO, SMM, online video marketing, digital display advertising, and many. While SEO makes your site search engine friendly, SMM works on improving the social engagement of your company. Display or online video advertising entertains as well informs your buyers. Every form of digital marketing is essential to tap the right benefit for your companies. Applying a unique strategy helps you grow your business.

    Digital marketing takes care of the digital presence of every company. It needs experts to handle every entity of the marketing carefully. With a proper plan and presentation, a company climbs to the top rank on the search engine result. Many digital marketing companies are offering valuable services that save your time and give you more profit by analyzing your market share. Since digital marketing is evolving every day, the success lies in going as per the trend.

    Increase in Digital Crime and Rise in Security Concerns Shall Pace the Computer Forensics Market

    The computer forensics market is expected to experience an upsurge on account of the increase in sophisticated digital crime and terrorist attacks and economic growth in developing countries. Computer forensics which refers to analysis and reporting of digital data for a legal purpose is the most prominent market within the overall digital forensic market. Computer forensics have become much dynamic in the field of cyber-crime, to perform a structured investigation, in order to detect hidden facts for accurate investigation results. A variety of techniques are used by investigators to inspect and search hidden, encrypted or deleted files or folders.

    Computer forensics have gained wide-popularity in developed regions such as North America and Europe owing to technological advancements and increased cyber-crime rates. While, rise in corporate fraud has increased the demand for computer forensics. The UK and other European countries such as Italy and Germany, have observed an increasing trend for computer forensics as the various industries in the region have become more aware about safety and security of their data. Consequently, manufacturers are exploring innovative products and services to strengthen their market presence and meet the growing demand. Computer forensics have also gained popularity in developing countries such as India and China owing to the increased piracy threats and cyber-crimes, coupled with increased governments expenditure in digitalization of sectors such as banking, law enforcement, defense, and information technology, among others. Rise in disposable income and increase in the number of educated consumers have also supplemented the growth of the market in the region.

    The recommendation of computer forensics as a necessity for proper investigation by government organizations, has rapidly increased their adoption rate in both developed and developing economies. For instance, in order to maintain integrity, the governments of different countries in regions such as China and Brazil among others have formed new regulations that are based on the access to data and penalty in the case of modification of data or wrong entry in data records.

    To compete with established players, other manufacturers such as Paraben Corporation, Binary Intelligence, and Digital Detectives, among others plan to develop new computer forensic tools to gain consumer attraction and increase their market share. However, the major players in the market such as, Access Data Group Inc., Guidance Software, Inc., and LogRhythm Inc. have been utilizing economies of scale to meet the rising demand for computer forensic. The established brands have adopted product launch, partnerships, and business expansion as their growth strategy to strengthen their foothold in the market. For instance, in February 2015, Access Data Group Inc. announced the development of newly improved software version Summation 5.6, which provides case assessment, processing of comprehensive data, and management, final review and transcript management. The main aim of this product launch was to reveal the enhanced feature of this software among consumers, to gain popularity in the market. However, rising complexity of mobile devices and increased utilization of cloud based applications may hamper the growth of digital forensics market.

    Geographically, North America has emerged as the largest market for digital forensics. Increase in cyber-crime rates and technological advancement make this region favorable for growth in the forecast period. However, Asia-Pacific is projected to have the maximum growth rate in the digital forensics market driven by increase in cyber-crimes and rise in consumer awareness in developing countries such as China and India.

    Live Stream Weddings: "I Do" in the Digital Age

    For most lovebirds to-be, a piece of the delight from arranging their weddings accompanies the sharing of their “Big Day” with family and friends.

    Present day advancements in low-cost communication, such as live streaming, provides an alternative to hosting a traditional wedding, as well as, the option of live streaming a wedding to accommodate anyone who’s unable to attend due to poor health, distance, cost or work. Oh, and, it’s always a good idea to plan a wedding with the expectation that a few invitees won’t be able to attend the ceremony for a variety of reasons.

    Broadcasting “I do” (wedding ceremony) over broadband allows booked up, shut-in or far-flung loved ones to witness a couple tie the knot from virtually anywhere in the world.

    Expert Live Streaming Services

    Few organizations currently offer a comprehensive portfolio of end-to-end broadcasting options. Some supply their own equipment and support personnel, while others establish partnerships with freelance videographers who coordinate, set-up, and broadcast the live event. Boutique live streaming service providers place a greater emphasis on helping couples develop a thorough social media strategy — coordinating with the photography and videography vendors.

    Various DIY Broadcasting Options Available to Choose From

    For couples on a budget, managing all aspects of live streaming a wedding can be overwhelming. However, there’s a host of resources available to you, e.g., Skype, Apple’s FaceTime, IBM Cloud Video and Google Hangouts to name a few. Nonetheless, before jumping in, it’s important to bear in mind a few fundamental elements required to live stream a wedding:

    • Reliable Wi-Fi or broadband connection
    • Camera-equipped laptop, desktop computer, smartphone or tablet
    • Live streaming service provider that supports high-quality video transmission
    • Tripod mounts, if you’re using a smartphone or tablet device

    Additionally, it’s highly recommended to plan and test your set-up ahead of time to guarantee the sustained quality of your video stream. Ensure that your video camera or mobile device is in a place that captures all the activity yet is likewise off the beaten path of guest activity.

    Furthermore, disable any screen savers or sleep functions on the equipment to reduce the chances of experiencing an interruption during the live broadcast. Finally, make sure the guests have the link or landing page where your stream will be available, along with any passwords required to access the live stream.

    When Planning to Live Broadcast a Wedding

    Depending on your budget or preference, either hire an expert videographer with experience setting up and managing the event (end-to-end) or do it yourself with help from a knowledgeable friend.

    Safeguarding that all points of failure are addressed well in advance of the service, regardless of whether you hire an expert. A best practice is to test and re-test the reliability, speed, and performance of the set-up so the broadcast is optimized to perform as intended. Oh, and, be watchful concerning copyrighted music performed amid your ceremony.

    In addition to these considerations, it might likewise be reasonable to make your live stream accessible only to those whom you’ve invited to your wedding, meaning, use a live streaming service provider that offers password-protected access.

    Saying “I Do” in the Digital Age

    Social media, and the widespread adoption of “social technology” has changed human traditions and conventions. The effect of living in a web-based society and live streaming require contextually appropriate engagement.

    While online broadcasting can be a great vehicle to bring people together who are separated by distance, care must be taken to get the most out of the experience. Thorough preparation and observing proper etiquette are both critical in making sure that all goes well on your Big Day!

    Live streaming is the easiest way to broadcast your wedding. Today, a home computer, iPad, Android tablet or a smartphone can deliver high-quality HD video, allowing content to be created without expensive video equipment.

    Practical Tips for Digital Nomads, Travelers, And Everybody Else

    Practical tips for Digital Nomads, travelers, and for everybody else! A collection of (sometimes hard-earned) learnings from travelling mostly in Asia.

    Lean Economy

    is a common challenge for Digital Nomads. The lifestyle itself calls for travelling, rented accommodations, restaurant meals, etc; while normal business behaviour must be maintained with mobile electronic equipment, internet subscriptions, rented office space, printouts, copy & fax services, mailing, SIM cards, data backups, customer care, company accounting and auditing, company administration, tax statements; maintaining company records, contracts and agreements; etc…

    Digital Nomad life is often carried out in low-cost countries so food and lodging may not be an issue. Local travel is mostly cheap, however international travelling and the necessary electronics, not to mention possible commitments back home, still carry the same huge price tags. Furthermore, remote services and work carried out by a Digital Nomad tend to be far less paid for than if you’d do the same work on-site back home.

    However, quoting Tony Robbins: “The defining factor for success is never resources; it’s resourcefulness”

    Cheap travel

    There are dozens of websites for cheap flights and I have found that prices differ very little. Note that many budget airlines only sell tickets on their own websites. The key to cheap flights for the resourceful Digital Nomad is FLEXIBILITY when it comes to schedule. Avoiding the big travelling holidays is a no-brainer – though knowing the BIG travelling holidays may be a challenge in its own right when you are in an unfamiliar country.

    Try changing your departure date a few days back or forth and you may find the same (or a similar) flight substantially cheaper. If possible, try different airports for departure or arrival; it may be much cheaper – and a fun adventure experience – to e.g. fly to a smaller town and take a local bus or train to your final destination.

    On the other hand… be sure to consider the end-to-end cost. A cheap flight that forces you to pay for an extra hotel night near the airport (which may be expensive also in low-cost countries) may turn out a worse alternative than paying a little extra for a more conveniently scheduled flight. Also assess the risk for delays, and your sensitivity towards such! An important delivery and a complicated travel with many legs and tight or unsecure connections may not be a good combination. A fun adventure perhaps, but with a possible additional cost of a missed delivery and an upset (ex-) client.

    For hotel bookings I always use expedia.com, they seem to offer the best prices and their review system makes it easy to find good accommodation at a reasonable price. But be sure to check that there are a substantial number of reviews.

    Light packing

    This is obvious but still worth mentioning over and over. There are only a few items you really need to bring along. When finished packing – throw out half the stuff! Tony Robbins again: “… is never resources; it’s resourcefulness”. So throw out the stuff from your backpack and pack yourself full of resourcefulness! And you will be all ready to go!

    Private bills back home

    have a tendency to pop-up when least expected! Despite careful planning and “considering everything”, that yearly payment suddenly appears out of the blue. Arrange forwarding of mail to a trusted friend or relative, and perhaps deposit an amount of money with them for unexpected expenses. Much easier than if you unexpectedly need to make an urgent international money transfer when in some forgotten corner of the jungle.

    Insurance: medical, travelling, lost/stolen property etc.

    This is obviously not the most fun part when planning for your Digital Nomad career, but it is worth mentioning. What happens if you get sick? What if you have a fatal accident? What if you lose all your belongings including passport, money, credit cards, laptop, etc? Not very uplifting things to consider; but if the unlikely occurs you will be far better off with a good insurance.

    Retirement

    May be worth considering. After all, life is short… The Digital Nomad does not benefit from an employers provisions into a retirement fund – it is entirely up to the Digital Nomad’s initiative. Private savings or any other suitable way of creating assets that will generate sufficient and recurring income once needed.

    Advantages of Digital Media Player

    As with any other new technological arrival, digital media player comes with features that perfectly go with the latest needs.

    Digital media player stores picture, video, and music files. It offers all the options that you would love to see in such devices. It allows you to transfer these files from the computer to the player. It keeps large files in compressed form, at 10:1 rate, and store the information as flash memory.

    If you are deciding to buy a digital media player, better do some study first to make sure that you are adding a worthy component to your entertainment system? If you are unable to decide, look at the following details to make sure you are getting the right thing.

    Handling: You will find a digital media player the easiest to handle device. What you have to do is to transfer the digital file to the player; the rest will be very easy. Finding your files and other navigations are very simple and easy. A digital media player is a simple and fast-to- handle device, do not worry about it.

    Files Storage Flexibility: You should know that if you add a online media player to your system, means you are adding lot of flexibility to it. Finding and switching between files are fast and simple. Its greater flexibility shows in terms of the physical layout of the system; all the files are stored on the media player and the player takes care of all the files in an easier and flexible way. Files like the ones of pictures, audio, and video will be conveniently stored in a logical order.

    Convenience: You can search the movie or any other file with all the ease and convenience. You do not have to bother with the DVDs, searching for the movie or music you want to watch or listen. You will get the electronic directory with all the lists of stored files; just click on the desired one and it will go on. Moreover, you can watch the movie right on your TV screen. All such operations are very skillfully designed to offer the maximum convenience.

    Safe and Secure: CDs or DVDs do not remain long in good condition. They can be damaged by any accident or mishandling, or may get lost, or the quality of movie print on CD or DVD deteriorates over time. No such problems ever exist in digital media player. Whatever is stored, will remain in perfect conditions for much longer period of time. Just store the files and forget about its safety or security.

    If you frequently use your entertainment system to listen to music or watch movies, sure a digital media player will be of great use. Your task will become much easier and fast, and you do not have to worry about handling bundles of DVDs and CDs. The ease and convenience of use will offer you more comfortable enjoyment.

    Digital Signatures and Certificates

    When we think of VPNs, often our first thought is that of encryption of the user data. But adversaries or those intent on reading the data could However an attacker could record a conversation and then replay the replies between to participants. What we need to do is to be able to ensure the source of the data is genuine, and that is where digital signatures and certificates comes in.

    To construct a Digital Signature, public key encryption systems must be in place. The construction of the Digital Signature entails applying a hash function to the message by concatenation of the message with a known secret key and then applying a mathematical function which will produce a fixed length output known as the digest. The digest is then encrypted with the public decryption key which produces a signature that can be appended to the message to verify that the message is from the genuine source.

    The receiver recalculates the hash function and compared with the signature after applying the public key. If the two match, then because only the originator could have known the hash function and the private key, the message must be genuine.

    Message Digest algorithms use Hash functions to map many potential inputs to each of a large number of outputs. What is normally produced is a fixed length field, typically a few hundred bits in length. A secret key is shared between sender and receiver and by concatenating this with a message for transfer, the digest is produced.

    MD5 (Message Digest 5) is probably the most common hash function used, and it produces a 128 bit digest which is often appended to the header before the packet is transmitted. Any change in the message will cause the digest to change, and even the source and destination IP addresses can be used together with the message contents when creating the digest, which validates the addresses.

    Another popular hashing algorithm is SHA (Secure Hash Algorithm) that produces a 160 bit digest ensuring greater security than MD5.

    It doesn’t matter how long the digest is, an identical digest will always result for an identical packet. But anyone wishing to attack the system could monitor exchanges and determine which packets sent in what ever order would result in some known result. This result could therefore be reproduced by replay of the messages. This is known as a collision attack.

    HMAC (Hash-based Message Authentication Code) can be used to combat collision attacks by including two calculated values know as ipid and opid, which are initially calculated using the secret key for the first packet and recalculated for subsequent packets. The values are stored after each packet and recovered for use in the calculation of the digest for the next packet. This ensures that the digest is always different even for identical packets.

    A Digital Certificate is produced using some known information such as name, address, mother’s maiden name, house number, National Insurance number, or indeed anything. This information is appended to the public key and then used as part of the hash function to create the digest which is then encrypted using the private key through a secure encryption system such as RSA or AES.

    A Digital Certificate can be validated by passing it through the public encryption process with the public key for the user to yield the digest. This can be compared with the calculation of the digest from the claimed identity of the user and their public key. If the two calculations yield the same result then the certificate is valid. Digital certificates are appended to messages to verify the authenticity of the source of the message.

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