Throughout history, the safety and health movement has been impacted by legislation. In the following safety and health chronology, noteworthy events, individuals, and legislative action are set forth to illustrate the theme that the safety professional/practitioner is and has been a significant part of those preventive experiences making up the story of life.

The Ancient Chinese (c 2,500 BC) spread the risk of loss by placing 1/6 of their harvest on each of six boats traveling to the market.

Hammurabi (c 2,000 BC), ruler of Babylon, was responsible for the Code of Hammurabi, part of which bears resemblance to today’s workers’ compensation laws.

Ancient Egyptians (as early as 1600 BC) recognized the hazards of breathing the fumes produced by melting silver and gold.

Hippocrates (c 460-c 377 BC), the father of contemporary medicine, established a link between the respiratory problems of Greek stonecutters and the rock dust surrounding them.

In ancient Rome, the few slaves who survived the dangerous task of ship launching were given their freedom.

In 1601, the first English statute on “assurance” (an earlier term for insurance) was enacted. This statute covered marine risks.

In 1667, the Great Fire of London (September 2-7, 4666), caused the first English fire insurance laws to be enacted.

In 1700, Bernardino Ramazzini, an Italian physician, published the first thesis attempting to prove the connections between occupation and disease.

In 1730, Benjamin Franklin organized the first fire-fighting company in the United States as well as detecting lead poisoning symptoms with Dr. Evans.

In 1775, English doctors discovered that chimney sweeps, who were exposed to coal tar residues in their daily work, showed a higher incidence of cancer than did the general population.

In 1792, the first charter to write marine and fire insurance was granted in the United States.

In 1812, the Embargo of the War of 1812 spurred the development of the New England textile industry and the founding of factory mutual companies. These early insurance companies inspected properties for hazards and suggested loss control and prevention methods in order to secure low rates for their policyholders.

In 1864, The Pennsylvania Mine Safety Act (PMSA) was passed into law.

In 1864, North America’s first accident insurance policy was issued.

In 1867, the state of Massachusetts instituted the first government-sponsored factory inspection program.

In 1877, the state of Massachusetts passed a law requiring guarding for dangerous machinery, and took authority for enforcement of factory inspection programs.

In 1878, the first recorded call by a labor organization for federal occupational safety and health law is heard.

In 1896, an association to prevent fires and write codes and standards, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), was founded.

In 1902, the state of Maryland passed the first workers’ compensation law.

In 1904, the first attempt by a state government to force employers to compensate their employees for on-the-job injuries was overturned when the Supreme Court declared Maryland’s workers’ compensation law to be unconstitutional.

On March 21, 1911, in the Asch Building in New York City, nearly 150 women and young girls died in the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire because of locked fire exits and inadequate fire extinguishing systems. A major turning point in history, this fire changed regulation by the government and laws instituted to protect workers.

In 1911, a professional, technical organization responsible for developing safety codes for boilers and elevators, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) was founded. A17 Safety Code was published.

1911-1915, During this five-year period, 30 states passed workers’ compensation laws.

In October 14, 1911, the American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE) was founded in New York City. Originally named the United Society of Casualty Inspectors. The ASSE was dedicated to the development of accident prevention techniques, and to the advancement of safety engineering as a profession.

California Railroad Commission, now known as the California Public Utilities Commission, ws created by constitutional amendment to oversee rail safety, including the safety of highway/rail crossings.

In 1912, a group of engineers representing insurance companies, industry, and government met in Milwaukee to exchange data on accident prevention. The organization formed at this meeting was to become the National Safety Council (NSC). (Today, the NSC carries on major safety campaigns for the general public, as well as assists industry in the development of safety promotion programs.)

In 1916, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of state workers’ compensation laws.

In 1918, the American Standards Association was founded. Responsible for the development of many voluntary safety standards, some of which are referenced into laws, today, it is now called the American National Standards Institute [ANSI].

In 1931 the Uniform Traffic Code was established because of the increase in speed and volume of motor vehicle traffic and accidents. The code consists of four separate acts: motor vehicle registration, driver licensing, automobile anti-theft and uniform traffic regulations.

In 1936, Frances Perkins, Secretary of Labor, called for a federal occupational safety and health law. This action came a full 58 years after organized labor’s first recorded request for a law of this nature.

In 1936, the Walsh-Healey (Public Contracts) Act passed. This law required that all federal contracts be fulfilled in a healthful and safe working environment.

By 1948, all states (48 at the time) now had workers’ compensation laws.

In 1952, Coal Mine Safety Act (CMSA) was passed into law.

In 1960, specific safety standards were promulgated for the Walsh-Healey Act.

On Jan 3, 1961, an accident at an experimental nuclear reactor at a federal installation near Idaho Falls, ID kills three workers. These were the first deaths in U.S. nuclear reactor operations.

In 1966, the Metal and Nonmetallic Mines Safety Act (MNMSA) was passed.

In 1966, the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) and its sections, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), were established.

In 1968, President Lyndon Johnson called for a federal occupational safety and health law.

In 1969, the Construction Safety Act (CSA) was passed.

In 1969, the Board of Certified Safety Professionals (BCSP) was established. This organization certifies practitioners in the safety profession.

In 1970, President Richard Nixon signed into law the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), thus creating the OSHA administration and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).

In 1970, on January 1, the National Environmental Policy Act, (NEPA) was signed. This provided a national charter for protecting and improving the environment and created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

On May 29, 1971, the firast OSHA standards were adopted to provide a baseline for safety and health protection in American workplaces.

In 1972, the Consumers Product Safety Act (CPSA) was signed into law.

In 1976, The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) passed and became the instrument by which the management of hazardous waste is regulated.

In 1980, to address the issues of hazardous waste management, the Pollution Liability Insurance Association (PLIA) was formed.

Jan 16, 1981 OSHA updates business electrical standards to simplify compliance and adopt a performance approach.

1991 North Carolina Plant Fire kills 25 workers and 49 injured at the Imperial Chicken processing plant in Hamlet NC. The employees were trapped inside due to padlocked doors meant to keep vandals away.

Sep 11, 2001, 2886 work related fatalities including 537 rescue workers, resulted from terrorist attacks on the NY City World Trade Center, at the Pentagon, an on the planes that crashed.

The history of Trailmobile trailers extends back to the end of the nineteenth century. While the brand has been owned under many different companies, it has always been a name that stood for rugged engineering and forward looking innovation. This Trailmobile history will give you an idea of its past, as well as the recent difficulties and rebirth under the ownership of Manac.

Precursor to Trailmobile

The Trailmobile Company can trace its roots back to the time of horse drawn carriages and vehicles. A man by the name of Daniel M. Sechler worked as a carriage maker in the 1840’s and started a couple carriage shops between that time and 1879 when he incorporated Sechler and Company. They quickly became one of the largest manufacturers of carriages in the world. By the end of the century motorized vehicles had begun to be developed, and the company needed to consider a new direction for growth. It was an employee named John Endebrock who realized that there was a future in trailers for the new cars and trucks that were being invented. In 1915, they introduced their trailer as the Trailmobile, which was meant to trail behind an automobile, and changed their name to The Trailmobile Company.

Invention of the Fifth Wheel

One of the great innovations that came from Trailmobile was the fifth wheel engineering for easy coupling and uncoupling of the trailer from the vehicle. This concept was patented in 1919 after several years of Endebrock searching for an easier solution to attach and disengage the semi trailer, similar to how train cars were locked together and then easily separated. Before this invention it took three men and jacks to unhook the trailer. After the introduction of the fifth wheel design, which has changed very little to this day, one man could complete the task.

Trailmobile Grows and Changes

The first and second world wars required Trailmobile to manufacture thousands of specialized trailers to meet the military needs of that time. It also established the Trailmobile brand as a trusted builder of quality trailers. Between the two wars and in the years after the company merged with other trucking manufacturers and was sold to different corporations. The name was changed for several years and then changed back in 1944 due to the respected name Trailmobile had developed over the years. Eventually the company came to be known as Trailmobile Canada Limited in the 1990’s.

The Recession Hits

The tough economic times created by a massive recession which began around 2007 had a big impact on the trucking and shipping industries. Trailmobile Canada Limited was not able to weather the storm and was forced to final bankruptcy in 2009. Manac purchased the assets of the company to broaden its number of commercial trailer offerings, and recently the Trailmobile brand has been resurrected with Manac Inc.’s reintroduction of the Trailmobile UltraPlate.

Despite its many changes over more than 100 years, Trailmobile still stands for quality construction and innovation in tractor trailers and dry vans. We hope you have enjoyed this history of Trailmobile trailers.

Cosmetic history worldwide has gone through a sea of change over the past few centuries. Today the cosmetic industry is worth over $50 billion, but this was not always the case. Before we study more about the history of cosmetics, we need to search the origin of cosmetics. Cosmetics was not a business during its nascent stage and it was solely used to enhance the look of the facial skin. It all started during the 4th century BC when cosmetics and business were words from two different worlds.

If we look into the history of cosmetics then we find that the Egyptians were the precursors of cosmetic use. Here the women of the upper class used animal fat, scented oils and eye color to give a real ‘facelift’ to their faces. During its initial years, cosmetics were restricted to the confines of a room where they were prepared from natural ingredients. Cosmetics had not yet found any commercial use though it was exchanged among women.

The western world also embraced it (though a little late) much to the dissatisfaction of the Church and Queen Victoria. The use of cosmetics here was more among the lower class women and this is what slowly gave rise to cosmetics being manufactured for sale among the common masses. The French were the first to manufacture cosmetics on a large scale with the use of new and improved methods. They replaced the dangerous ingredients like copper and lead with Zinc oxide and other harmless chemicals. This soon resulted in wide sales of cosmetics and women from the elite as well as lower classes started to use it for their facial beautification.

The history of cosmetics changed with the end of World War II and the industrial growth during the 1940’s, when cosmetics found acceptance among women from all corners of the world. With the advent of the electronic media like Television and Radio, things looked really sunny for the cosmetic industry as actresses wore cosmetic makeup that attracted the general masses – a huge boost to the sales figures. Soon more and more women turned it into a habit to wear cosmetic makeup for almost all occasions.

People, mostly associated with the cosmetic industry, wanted to manufacture healthier and better products because they did not treat this as a business but something that even had use in their homes. Technological advancements made it easier for the companies to try out different ingredients for their cosmetics and this has also provided a plethora of options in front of modern consumers. Cosmetic history worldwide is all about providing the right kinds of cosmetics to satiate the obsession to look beautiful and remain young..

Nowadays, the cosmetic industry is not only concentrating on cosmetics for women, but even providing the metro-sexual males a chance to improve their facial looks. Today, the world’s cosmetic industry faces a huge demand and a real challenge in producing good quality cosmetic products. It is still a highly lucrative business for new entrants, but the challenge now comes from clinical studies that show the existence of toxic ingredients that are currently used in the manufacture of cosmetic products. These ingredients, used over long periods of time, are now being considered harmful to one’s health. Therefore, the history of cosmetics today wills evolve into where the industry will go in the future with this new information that indicates the continuous use of these toxic ingredients could be harmful to one’s health.

Little did the Egyptians know then, when they were short of options and they sat in front of the mirror to use their cosmetics, what challenges would exist today.

The discovery of the art of photography and of films, particularly, provided the impetus to a sudden growth in cosmetics. As watchers saw images of famous people with perfect complexion and strong sexual appeal, the standards of a woman’s beauty started to change. Cosmetics have become a means to beautify one’s physical appearance.

During the 1920s, cosmetic history increased quickly. Between the year 1927 and 1930, advertising expenses on the radio increased from $300,000 to $3.2 million. At first, a lot of feminine magazines declined advertisements on cosmetics. However, near the end of the 1920s, cosmetics had progressed and cosmetic advertising in magazines became one of the magazine industries’ largest revenue producing resources.

Here is a brief chronological overview of cosmetics from 1900 to 2010:

1900: Annie Turnbo, a black entrepreneur, starts selling hair conditioners, hair treatments as well as harmless hair straightening products, and hair growers door-to-door.

1904: From Lodz, Poland, Max Factors moves to the United States, and 4 years later to the state of Los Angeles, where he puts make-ups up for sale to movie celebrities that does not crack or cake.

1909: Eugene Schueller, a French chemist, creates the very first harmless commercial hair dye. In the year 1910, his company was named L’Oreal.

1905: Sarah McWilliams starts to sell hair growers from door to door. After being wed to Charles J. Walker, she became recognized as Madame C.J. Walker and integrated her business in Indianapolis in the year 1911.

1909: Cosmetologist Elizabeth Hubbard and Florence Graham open a shop on 5th Avenue in New York City. After some time, Florence Graham renames their shop Elizabeth Arden.

1914: Maybelline has been discovered by T.J. Williams. The cosmetics company of Maybelline specializes in mascaras.

1922: The bobby pin has been invented in order to control or deal with short or bobbed hair.

1932: Charles Lackman, a supplier for nail polish, and Joseph and Charles Revson, distributors for nail polish, discovered Revlon. Revlon is a cosmetics business that sells nail polish in a broad range of colors.

1932: A New York chemist named Lawrence Gelb brings home a hair dye product that goes through the hair shaft. He also starts a business named Clairol. In the year 1950, he commences Miss Clairol Hair Color bath, a one step hair coloring product.

1933: A fresh, new technique for enduring waves, making use of chemicals, which does not need machinery or electricity, is introduced.

1935: Pancake make up, initially developed in order to appear natural on dye film, was made by the famous Max Factor

1941: Aerosols are actually untested, paving the way for the hairspray.

1944: Benjamin Green, a pharmacist of Miami Beach, develops the sunscreen in order to shield soldiers’ skins in the South Pacific.

1958: Mascara wands come out, doing away with the need to apply mascara using a brush.

1961: Cover Girl cosmetics, one of the 1st brand names put up in grocery stores for sale and aimed to teens is started by Noxema.

1963: For the first time in the cosmetic history, Revlon offers its very first powdered blush-on.

The next four decades of cosmetic history can be summed up as follows:

The 1970’s: a softer look became fashionable with painted eyeliners and eyelashes taking a downturn in sales. White highlighters and soft eye shadows were popular.

The 1980’s: anti-aging, skin care, and beauty treatments (therapy) were the fashion trends that evolved and there was an emphasis on tanning and the link to cancer.

The 1990’s: Touch© by Yves St. Laurent was launched and became the item to have as part of one’s cosmetic regimen.

2000 to 2010: History will make this the decade for certified organic and/or natural cosmetics. A period in which safe, toxic-free products will be launched by many companies around the world, but the US will be left behind.

Regulations will develop globally to certify cosmetic products as being organic and/or natural, but through strong lobbyists in Washington, DC, the US Cosmetic Industry will fight legislation to remove toxic ingredients in cosmetics, claiming their products are perfectly safe. Ultimately, when cosmetic history is studied sometime in the future, it will show that the industry placed revenue and profits before the health benefits of consumers.

Certifying organizations, mostly in other countries, will emerge, and although they will each use different criteria, in the end, they will have provided the consumer with safe, toxic-free cosmetic products. The hope is that the $50 billion US Cosmetic Industry will be somehow encouraged to do the same.

The Vegas Golden Knights have already exceeded the loftiest expectations for fans of an NHL expansion team. They not only advanced to the NHL playoffs, but they swept the LA Kings in the first round. As far as expansion teams go, the Vegas Knights have already secured a seat at the discussion table for greatest first year teams of all time. Today, we take a look at the all time great expansion teams in professional sports history.

Comparing Vegas Knights to Expansion Teams From Other Sports

Vegas blows away expansion NHL teams in terms of success out of the gate. The Florida Panthers were a competitive team, but they were never really a threat to make a run at the Stanly Cup Championship. So, to make the case that the Vegas Knights are the best expansion team in history, we should compare them to the best first year franchise teams in other sports.

Vegas Golden Knights Versus the Best MLB First Year Teams

The Los Angeles Angels were the only team to finish the season with more than 70 wins. The Golden Knights had a +.7 points differential during the regular season. The LA Angels were a -.3. When you consider that in baseball more total runs are scored per game, this stat is even greater. So, by far they have easily beat the LA Angels as far as the best NHL first year team versus the NFL.

Lets now give a quick rundown against the other professional sports:

In the NBA the 1967 Chicago Bulls are rated at the top of the list for most successful NBA expansion teams. Nobody has been able to surpass their 33 win season as a first year team. The were still well below a.500 team and never in any serious discussions for being a being a Championship caliber team.

What was the Vegas Golden Knights record during the regular season? They went 51-24 with 7 OTL (overtime losses). Only the Tampa Bay Lightning (54), The Nashville Predators (53), and the Winnipeg Jets (52) had more victories during the regular season. Vegas was in uncharted waters, and setting historic records for expansion teams all throughout the season.

In the NFL, no team has won more than 7 games during their inaugural season. The Carolina Panthers went 7-9 in 1995. So, once again, there isn’t a team in football that can even hold a candle to the performance of the Vegas Knights.

Vegas Golden Knights are The Greatest Expansion Team in Sports History – Hands Down

In Conclusion, the Vegas Golden Knights run away with “Greatest Expansion Team in Sports History Award.” The Golden Knights were a 200-1 longshot to win the Stanley Cup (Vegas odds) at the beginning of the season. Now, they are 4-1 odds to bring home the cup.

If the Vegas Golden Knights never win another game during the rest of the playoffs, they still can stake claim as being the greatest expansion team in sports history.

It’s very ironic that a “Vegas” sports team would be able to defy such long odds to perform so well. If you want to win over a fan base, all an expansion team has to do is perform well and provide hope for the future. In Vegas, the future is NOW! Whatever happens from here on out is just icing on the cake. The Vegas Golden Knights are here to stay and their growing fan base could not be any more excited!

Horse blankets intentions have changed tremendously over the course of time. These blankets were not first thought of to be used for horses and where more of an ordinary all-purpose daily item. Not only their intentions had changed but their construction and fabrics as well.

The history of horse blankets can be dated back to the Native American culture. Initially, horse blankets were used by Native American Indians for staying warm, rugs, spiritual ceremonies and other traditional usage. Blankets were also exchanged for possessions. It was a common practice to trade these blankets to other tribes and outsiders. Spanish foreigners used these blankets as buffer for their saddles or as protection between rider and horse.

Native American Indians spent a lot of their time developing horse blankets, which were woven by hand using wool cloth. The wool had to be cleaned and spun before the development of weaving could start. Dyes were produced by using plants and vegetables for a mixture of beautiful colors. Some horse blankets were woven smaller to be used with saddles.

To the present day, Native American Indians still hand weave horse blankets. One of the most sought after styles of blankets made is the Navajo blanket. These blankets are made with bright inks of earth blend colors and most times have fringed ends. Real Navajo horse blanket details diamond patterns and are desired for its simple, beautiful quality.

Tracking a real horse blanket in today’s market can be hard and pricey. Horse blankets from the 1800’s and early 1900’s are few because they were actively used and wore out easily. People who desire to purchase authentic horse blankets sometimes use them as keepsakes or a decorative piece to their home or office.

Available, on the market are diverse fabrics and colors. There are some companies that will personalize your blanket and sheets to the size of your horse or match the blanket color to your barn. A lot of people choose to use blankets that are waterproof and have snap or Velcro closures. In the warmer months, people will buy sheet coolers to assist their horse with heat exposure.

From past to present, horse blankets are a highly cherished item. From collection pieces to everyday practical usage, horse blankets will always have an interesting history.

2000 years Before Christ, in India and Mesopotamia

Travel for trade was an important feature since the beginning of civilisation. The port at Lothal was an important centre of trade between the Indus valley civilisation and the Sumerian civilisation.

600 BC and thereafter

The earliest form of leisure tourism can be traced as far back as the Babylonian and Egyptian empires. A museum of historic antiquities was open to the public in Babylon. The Egyptians held many religious festivals that attracted the devout and many people who thronged to cities to see famous works of arts and buildings.

In India, as elsewhere, kings travelled for empire building. The Brahmins and the common people travelled for religious purposes. Thousands of Brahmins and the common folk thronged Sarnath and Sravasti to be greeted by the inscrutable smile of the Enlightened One- the Buddha.

500 BC, the Greek civilisation

The Greek tourists travelled to sites of healing gods. The Greeks also enjoyed their religious festivals that increasingly became a pursuit of pleasure, and in particular, sport. Athens had become an important site for travellers visiting the major sights such as the Parthenon. Inns were established in large towns and seaports to provide for travellers’ needs. Courtesans were the principal entertainment offered.

 

This era also saw the birth of travel writing. Herodotus was the worlds’ first travel writer. Guidebooks also made their appearance in the fourth century covering destinations such as Athens, Sparta and Troy. Advertisements in the way of signs directing people to inns are also known in this period.

The Roman Empire

With no foreign borders between England and Syria, and with safe seas from piracy due to Roman patrols, the conditions favouring travel had arrived. First class roads coupled with staging inns (precursors of modern motels) promoted the growth of travel. Romans travelled to Sicily, Greece, Rhodes, Troy and Egypt. From 300 AD travel to the Holy Land also became very popular. The Romans introduced their guidebooks (itineraria), listing hotels with symbols to identify quality.

Second homes were built by the rich near Rome, occupied primarily during springtime social season. The most fashionable resorts were found around Bay of Naples. Naples attracted the retired and the intellectuals, Cumae attracted the fashionable while Baiae attracted the down market tourist, becoming noted for its rowdiness, drunkenness and all- night singing.

Travel and Tourism were to never attain a similar status until the modern times.

In the Middle Ages

Travel became difficult and dangerous as people travelled for business or for a sense of obligation and duty.

Adventurers sought fame and fortune through travel. The Europeans tried to discover a sea route to India for trade purposes and in this fashion discovered America and explored parts of Africa. Strolling players and minstrels made their living by performing as they travelled. Missionaries, saints, etc. travelled to spread the sacred word.

Leisure travel in India was introduced by the Mughals. The Mughal kings built luxurious palaces and enchanting gardens at places of natural and scenic beauty (for example Jehangir travelled to Kashmir drawn by its beauty.

Travel for empire building and pilgrimage was a regular feature.

The Grand Tour

From the early seventeenth century, a new form of tourism was developed as a direct outcome of the Renaissance. Under the reign of Elizabeth 1, young men seeking positions at court were encouraged to travel to continent to finish their education. Later, it became customary for education of gentleman to be completed by a ‘Grand Tour’ accompanied by a tutor and lasting for three or more years. While ostensibly educational, the pleasure seeking men travelled to enjoy life and culture of Paris, Venice or Florence. By the end of eighteenth century, the custom had become institutionalised in the gentry. Gradually pleasure travel displaced educational travel. The advent of Napoleonic wars inhibited travel for around 30 years and led to the decline of the custom of the Grand Tour.

The development of the spas

The spas grew in popularity in the seventeenth century in Britain and a little later in the European Continent as awareness about the therapeutic qualities of mineral water increased. Taking the cure in the spa rapidly acquired the nature of a status symbol. The resorts changed in character as pleasure became the motivation of visits. They became an important centre of social life for the high society.

In the nineteenth century they were gradually replaced by the seaside resort.

The sun, sand and sea resorts

The sea water became associated with health benefits. The earliest visitors therefore drank it and did not bathe in it. By the early eighteenth century, small fishing resorts sprung up in England for visitors who drank and immersed themselves in sea water. With the overcrowding of inland spas, the new sea side resorts grew in popularity. The introduction of steamboat services in 19th century introduced more resorts in the circuit. The seaside resort gradually became a social meeting point

 Role of the industrial revolution in promoting travel in the west

 The rapid urbanisation due to industrialisation led to mass immigration in cities. These people were lured into travel to escape their environment to places of natural beauty, often to the countryside they had come from change of routine from a physically and psychologically stressful jobs to a leisurely pace in countryside.

Highlights of travel in the nineteenth century 

·        Advent of railway initially catalysed business travel and later leisure travel. Gradually special trains were chartered to only take leisure travel to their destinations.

·        Package tours organised by entrepreneurs such as Thomas Cook.

·        The European countries indulged in a lot of business travel often to their colonies to buy raw material and sell finished goods.

·        The invention of photography acted as a status-enhancing tool and promoted overseas travel.

·        The formation of first hotel chains; pioneered by the railway companies who established great railway terminus hotels.

·        Seaside resorts began to develop different images as for day-trippers, elite, for gambling.

·        Other types of destinations-ski resorts, hill stations, mountaineering spots etc.

·        The technological development in steamships promoted travel between North America and Europe.

·        The Suez Canal opened direct sea routes to India and the Far East.

·        The cult of the guidebook followed the development of photography.

Tourism in the Twentieth Century

The First World War gave first hand experience of countries and aroused a sense of curiosity about international travel among less well off sector for the first time. The large scale of migration to the US meant a lot of travel across the Atlantic. Private motoring began to encourage domestic travel in Europe and the west.  The sea side resort became annual family holiday destination in Britain and increased in popularity in other countries of the west. Hotels proliferated in these destinations.

The birth of air travel and after

The wars increased interest in international travel. This interest was given the shape of mass tourism by the aviation industry. The surplus of aircraft and growth of private airlines aided the expansion of air travel. The aircraft had become comfortable, faster and steadily cheaper for overseas travel. With the introduction of Boeing 707 jet in 1958, the age of air travel for the masses had arrived. The beginning of chartered flights boosted the package tour market and led to the establishment of organised mass tourism. The Boeing 747, a 400 seat craft, brought the cost of travel down sharply. The seaside resorts in the Mediterranean, North Africa and the Caribbean were the initial hot spots of mass tourism.

A corresponding growth in hotel industry led to the establishment of world-wide chains. Tourism also began to diversify as people began to flock alternative destinations in the 70s. Nepal and India received a throng of tourists lured by Hare Krishna movement and transcendental meditation. The beginning of individual travel in a significant volume only occurred in the 80s. Air travel also led to a continuous growth in business travel especially with the emergence of the MNCs.

The Fox Network television history has not all been plain sailing. It was launched in October 1986 after the parent company of 20th Century Fox, TCF Holdings, sold 50% of its shares to News Corporation for $250 million in 1985. New Corporation then bought six television stations in various major cities from Metromedia. At this time, the stations that they bought were broadcastings to just 22% of households in the United States. Once they started broadcasting as Fox in 1986 there were reaching 80%. This however, was not enough to be considered alongside the other three main networks of ABC, CBS and NBC who were reaching over 97%. Fox was still in its infancy at this point and although it had many plans in the pipeline it was only broadcasting one show – The Late Show Starring Joan Rivers.

The network was seen to have a young and slightly irreverent outlook in its programming and was soon broadcasting shows such as ‘Married… with Children’ and ‘The Tracey Ullman Show’. It was not long before ‘The Simpsons’ was born and this went on to be the longest running animated series and situation comedy in the history of U.S. television. Fox Network television history was being made.

‘America’s Most Wanted’ was the next big success story in Fox Network television history and was the first show to make it into the top 50 shows of the week in the all important Nielson ratings. The show is still among the prime time hits. Although Fox was well on its way to being recognised as a top network broadcaster, its ranking with the other big three was still elusive.

This all changed in 1993 when Fox gained the National Football League coverage contract. Until then this had been the rights of CBS, where it had found its home since the 1950s. After just one season of the NFL coverage, Fox had to be considered alongside CBS, ABC and NBC… the big three had become the big four. Around the same time, Fox started to broadcast some soap operas aimed at the younger audience and these were popular from the outset. Shows such as ‘Beverly Hills 90210’ and ‘Melrose Place’ were an important part of the Fox network but even they were beaten on viewing figures by ‘The X-Files’. This was the networks entrance ticket to the Top 25 in the Nielson rating schedule.

Since then, Fox Network television history has given us such shows as ‘Family Guy’, ‘King of the Hill’ and many reality shows such as ‘Joe Millionaire’. Such shows are not popular with everyone and some have knocked the network for broadcasting distasteful viewing. However, the finale of the first series of ‘Joe Millionaire’ was watched by over 40 million people. The figures speak for themselves. Fox has always been an entertainment channel. It has never faired well with news reporting but has found its own niche where it entertains and brightens up the lives of millions of viewers throughout the United States.

Self defense is such a broad term that the history of it cannot be pinned down in the least. It is safe to say, however, that the broad spectrum of self defense can be considered as having come from the dawn of time even the earliest forms of human had to learn how to protect themselves and teach their strategies to others. From there self defense evolved into less primitive forms and into delineated and disciplined forms, such as with martial arts. There really is a style of defense for everybody whether it be women’s self defense, kickboxing, street fighting or even martial arts.

Women’s self defense is one of the most popular forms of defense, and it too is a broad term in and of itself. Women’s self defense can employ many techniques from several different styles of general defense, including but not limited to martial arts. Women’s self defense mainly teaches women how to protect themselves against unwanted attackers and usually employs more evasive maneuvers rather than one-on-one strikes because the theory is that if a woman gets attacked, she is not going to want to fight her attacker face to face, she will need to employ a strategy that will best allow her to remove herself from the situation.

Women’s self defense can usually be taught in just a few classes and many local YMCA centers will offer it; it is the perfect solution for women that do not want to take up learning an entire martial art but still want to protect themselves.

Street fighting is another form of self defense that can sometimes be taught in classes, but to its namesake, is more often learned by other s on the street. Similar to the martial art Krav Maga, the sole purpose of street fighting is to bring down the opponent and incapacitate them so they are not able to attack again using any means available. If that means a throw to the ground, then that is what must be used but other times, more desperate or harsh methods must be used.

Unfortunately, street fighting (again, like Krav Maga) is one of the more brutal forms of self defense and it usually doesn’t matter if the opponent or attacker is seriously hurt or maimed; in fact, that is the objective most of the time. For this reason, street fighting is not one of the forms of defense that can double as a sport and practiced for fun. It is best to learn it and keep the knowledge tucked away for a time in which it is truly necessary.

It is a good idea for everyone to be schooled in at least one form of self defense. The main philosophy behind defense, regardless of the form, is this: do not hurt the other person unless it is absolutely unavoidable and necessary. Contrary to popular belief, if everyone learned just a little bit of proper self defense, there would be a lot less violence to go around.

The history of sports photography is tightly related to the trends of sport gaining popularity throughout human history. The technology of photography from the early 1800s onward leaped forward in bounds and aided an emerging media, sporting journalism.

The inspiration of athletics and sport in art can certainly be seen in the work of the ancient Greek masters of sculpture, however this type of expression was not as prevalent in modern sporting venues until the invention of wet-collodion and dry-plate photographic processes. These processes allowed for posed studio images on glass plates and tin-types, but were just not ‘fast’ enough for the ‘stop-action’ images we are used to seeing today.

As the 19th Century was coming to a close, in the 1880s scientific motion studies of athletes in action were produced in the United States and Germany, the technology was still not considered on the sporting field. This all changed with the advancement of photography and sports journals in the last part of the century. As the first sports journals began to appear around 1900, the public became more and more interested in the sports image, which often would include images of players on the tennis green, golfling or on the hunt for wild game.

In the history of sports photography the earliest of contributors were more concerned with the activities of the country elite, but by the end of World War I, readers of sporting journals were becoming interested in the professional athletes of American baseball and tennis. The majority of these early images were of prominent players in posed situations, giving te sense of action. Baseball players were posed with bat in hand at the plate, teams were lined up for group shots and so forth, however the ‘action’ shot was still not widely seen.

With the 1930s more and more images of athletes in action were appearing in magazines, assisted in their growth through camera systems allowing photographers shutter speeds up to 1/1000th of a second. This gave way to styles highlighting blurred subjects suggesting movement and ‘stop-action’ images of the athlete in activity. Photographers began adopting signature styles and the popularity of the genre began to grow rapidly as the public began to expect the excitement of seeing their favored athletes in ‘action.’

In 1954, Sports Illustrated – the vaunted digest of sports and athletics – premiered and suddenly the position of being a sports photographer became even more engrained in the public eye. The magazine highlighted the exploits and professional and amateur athletes the world over, increasing the need for the art form and those who practiced it. By this point, technology had more or less caught up with demand, with the advent of small, compact single lens reflex (SLR) cameras and the fast shutter speeds offered in the models. The history of sports photography is strongly tied to lens technology, as well, had advanced to offer the photographer a wide choice of methods to compress perspective and using depth of field for dramatic effect.