Baking has been many cultures’ favorite technique for creating snacks, desserts, and accompaniments to meals for many years. Now, it is very well-known as the method for creating sweets and all sorts of wondrous mouthwatering pastries. In ancient history, the first evidence of baking occurred when humans took wild grass grains, soaked it in water, and mixed everything together, mashing it into a kind of broth-like paste. Then, the paste was cooked by pouring it onto a flat, hot rock, resulting in a bread-like substance. Later, this paste was roasted on hot embers, which made bread-making easier, as it could now be made anytime fire was created. Around 2500 B.C., records show that the Egyptians already had bread, and may have actually learned the process from the Babylonians. The Greek Aristophanes, around 400 B.C., also recorded information that showed that tortes with patterns and honey flans existed in Greek cuisine. Dispyrus was also created by the Greeks around that time and widely popular; was a donut-like bread made from flour and honey and shaped in a ring; soaked in wine, it was eaten when hot.

In the Roman Empire, baking flourished widely. In about 300 B.C., the pastry cook became an occupation for Romans (known as the pastillarium). This became a very highly respected profession because pastries were considered decadent, and Romans loved festivity and celebration. Thus, pastries were often cooked especially for large banquets, and any pastry cook who could invent new types of tasty treats, unseen at any other banquet, was highly prized. Around 1 A.D., there were more than three hundred pastry chefs in Rome alone, and Cato wrote about how they created all sorts of diverse foods, and flourished because of those foods. Cato speaks of an enormous amount of breads; included amongst these are the libum (sacrificial cakes made with flour), placenta (groats and cress), spira (our modern day flour pretzels), scibilata (tortes), savaillum (sweet cake), and globus apherica (fritters). A great selection of these, with many different variations, different ingredients, and varied patterns, were often found at banquets and dining halls. To bake bread, the Romans used an oven with its own chimney and had grain mills to grind grain into flour.

Eventually, because of Rome, the art of baking became widely known throughout Europe, and eventually spread to the eastern parts of Asia. Bakers often baked goods at home and then sold them in the streets-children loved their goods. In fact, this scene was so common that Rembrandt illustrated a work that depicted a pastry chef selling pancakes in the streets of Germany, and young children surrounding him, clamoring to get a sample. In London, pastry chef sold their goods in handcarts, which were very convenient shops on wheels. This way, they developed a system of “delivery” baked goods to people’s households, and the demand for baked goods increased greatly as a result. Finally, in Paris, the first open-air café of baked goods was developed, and baking became an established art throughout the entire world.

The Emil J. Paidar Company has been making barber chairs since the 1900’s. The Chicago-based company is one of two major domestic barber supply manufacturers in the United States during that time period. The other one is Koken Barber’s Supply Company with headquarters in St. Louis Missouri. Paidar provided a bunch of other barber supplies as well, including barber poles, mirror cases, wall fixtures, work cabinets, manicure tables, shoe shining stands and coat racks.

As the name suggests, it was founded by Emil J. Paidar. According to records, Emil died on May 7, 1950 due to a car accident. He was supposed to go to his summer home on Little Traverse bay when the incident happened. Mr. Paidar was 74.

The company had some interesting barber shop equipment in their catalog. One in particular was its Duo-Hydraulic Barber’s Chair product line which was tagged as “The Chair With The Longer Life.” It is actually a variation of the hydraulic Koken chairs with distinct improvements. Koken pioneered the hydraulic lift technology in barber chairs which it patented in 1892.

The Great Depression in the 1930’s was very challenging for the barber supply business in the United States. Despite the orders dwindling, the top two companies were still going head to head, vying for customer loyalty and the most number of chairs sold. Several financing schemes were advertised to make ordering in bulk fast and convenient. Furthermore, diversification became a necessity to stay alive. During the Second World War, demand for barber equipment sky rocketed not because the army needed haircuts- but because orders for tool chests and cartridge cases increased.

In 1957, a new competitor entered the domestic market. Japan-based Takara Company sold barber chairs in the US which they branded as Belmont. They were affordable and highly styled at the same time. They were really spinoffs of Emil J. Paidar barber chairs that were being priced at discounted prices. Dealers couldn’t help but switch to the newcomer which had a more modern look. Eventually, this prompted Koken and Paidar to appeal to the government to increase the import levy on Belmont barber chairs, as it was originally from Japan. However, the appeal wasn’t entirely granted, and Koken was ultimately purchased by the now called, Takara Belmont Company. As a result of the acquisition, Paidar was overtaken as the leading manufacturer of barber’s supply and equipment in the US.

Emil J. Paidar barber chairs are now considered vintage and are considerably priced in auction sites.

A study of the history of ear gauging indicates the practice to be as old as recorded human history. For males, this form of ear piercing has been a symbol of status, while for women, in addition to being used as means of bodily decoration, it has also been employed to signify the attainment of womanhood.

Ear gauging, which is also referred to as ear stretching, is the stretching of ear lobe piercings to larger diameters than that of the original piercing. It is a form of body enhancement or beautification that many young western people adopt to look ‘different’ from the usual crowd. However, this is not a modern form of body piercing, since it has been around for as long as archaeological records exist.

In many cases, ear gauging has been used historically to indicate the standing of members of a specific tribe, and in many respects this is still the situation today. Stretched piercings have been, and still are, a reflection on the individual’s sexual capability and also their superiority over other males in the tribe. The larger the stretching, the more important the individual.

Otzi the Iceman is a prime example of mummies known to have stretched ears. This is the earliest known example of ear gauging, Otzi having 7-11 mm ear piercings during 3300 BC. It has been suggested that the stretching of the ears noted in depictions of Siddhartha Gautama, better known as Buddha, may have been caused by the weight of the gold jewelry he wore, but this is mere supposition.

It is supported, however, by the fact that the Masai tribe of Kenya and the Lahu and Karen-Paduang people of Thailand use this ‘gravity’ technique to stretch their piercings. Let us have a look at the ear gauging practices used today by various cultures.

A. Mursi Tribal Women

The Mursi is an Ethiopian tribe where the women are obliged to wear plates in their gauged ears and on their bottom lip. About a year prior to her marriage, or at about 15 years of age, a Mursi girl’s lip will be pierced by her mother and a wooden peg pushed through the incision.

Once healed, the peg is changed for a larger diameter one. Eventually, the peg is replaced by a plate of clay or wood, and this plate is successively changed for larger diameter ones until the required diameter is attained – from around 8 – 22 cm in diameter (3 – 9 inches). Once these plates have been secured, she receives a higher degree of respect than those without them, and is known as a ‘Bhansanai’.

These lip and ear plates need not be worn permanently, but are an expected adornment during special occasions such as during weddings and other celebrations, and when they serve food to men. Today, young women can generally make their own decision as to whether or not they follow this tradition.

B. The Masai People of Kenya

The practice of ear gauging has been common among Masai men and women for thousands of years. In recent years, however, most young men have not been following this custom, although you will still find many Masai women wearing ear decorations made from stones, cross-cut elephant tusks, wood and animal bones.

The original piercing is carried out using a thorn, sharpened twig or a sharp knife point. Once healed, ear gauging is then carried out by wearing increasingly heavy jewellery that pulls the lobe down and stretches the piercing. This is the traditional way of gauging ears in the more primitive cultures, although many Masai today will use proper ear gauging techniques, such as their own versions of insertion tapers or taper spikes. Beads are a common form of ornamentation, although plugs made from bone, tusks and wood are also used.

C. The African Fulani Tribe

Fulani women from Nigeria and Central Africa tend to use smaller diameter ear gauges, and decorate them using large gold domes or hoops carrying earrings. A Fulani child will have her ears pierced at around 3 years old, although they may not be stretched until she is older. The gauges used by Fulani women are relatively small compared to the Masai and Mursi, although the jewellery can be larger.

D. Asian Hill Tribes

Of the various hill tribes, the only two known to practice ear gauging are the Lahu from Thailand, and the Karen-Padaung (Longnecks) from Myanmar (Burma) and also the Phrae province in Thailand. That latter tribe are best known for their neck rings, offering the appearance of long necks, but both cultures believe the ear to be sacred and the more jewellery they can wear on the better. By gauging their ears, they are able to wear the maximum amount of jewellery they believe possible.

E. Mexican and Central American Civilizations

In Mayan and Aztec society, ear gauging was regarded as desirable for males. There are many Mayan representations of men with flares and ear plugs (ear spools) in gauged ears, and the material used was indicative of the social standing of the wearer. Jade ear plugs were worn by the higher classes, while the rest would use bone, stone, wood and other materials. In central Mexico, the craftsmanship of the Aztecs is evident in the ear gauging plugs and ornaments of gold and silver, though the lower classes would adorn their stretches earlobes with shells, copper and wood among many other imaginative materials.

Ear gauging has been carried out worldwide, and among other notable areas involved in this practice are Japan, where the Ainu used ear jewellery made from shells, bone and a ball and ring known as Ninkari. There are many other cultures worldwide where ear gauging was a part of their life, and even today many people regard ear stretching as a fashion statement and a way of expressing their own personality and individuality.

Chocolate is one of the most popular and loved sweet treats around the world. It’s loved in all sorts of shapes and sizes – bars, candy, spreadable chocolate, chocolate syrup… you name it. Everything that is created from chocolate leaves most of us wanting more. But, how did this incredible dessert come to life? Who was the genius that decided to create it? Chocolate had an incredible journey throughout our history, ending up in modern times where it’s still favoured among sweet-toothed aficionados looking for candied satisfaction.

Cacao seeds grow naturally on trees, so it wasn’t long until the ancient populations in Mesoamerica, where it all began, discovered the taste and properties of cacao. Chocolate started being consumed as a liquid, a drink made out of cacao seeds where spices and even wine was added; giving it a rather bitter taste and not the sweet one we all know and love. It was believed that this beverage had aphrodisiac properties, a story that still persist today but is yet to be proven. In the 16th century, the primordial chocolate reached Europe, where sugar was added to the mixture. The higher classes to consumed it at first, but it soon reached the ‘common’ people, who enjoyed it as well. The word “chocolate” comes from “chocolatl”, which is Classical Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs.

Between the 17th and 19th century, the craze for chocolate expanded, as the Europeans, more precisely the French, English, and Dutch, created colonies and started planting cacao trees to harvest the much-needed beans. But, it was during the Industrial Revolution that chocolate started to get the shape and taste we’re now familiar with. In 1815, Coenraad van Houten, who was a Dutch chemist, decided to incorporate alkaline salts into the composition of chocolate. This process really diminished its initial bitterness. In 1828, the chemist created a special press that managed to remove approximately half of the butter chocolate contained, helping it reach a quality that was more consistent.

From this point on, it was only one more step to the creation of modern chocolate. In 1847, Joseph Fry took the pressed “Dutch cocoa”, as it was called, and added the melted cacao butter to it, creating a more malleable form of chocolate. And in 1879, Rodolphe Lindt, the creator of the chocolate with the same name, brought the final touch to modern chocolate with his conching machine, which improved the taste and texture of chocolate by mixing chocolate evenly with cocoa butter. Even so, beverages with chocolate were still popular, with milk being added since the 17th century, to improve their taste. But it was in 1875 when milk chocolate appeared, with Daniel Peter mixing chocolate liquor with powdered milk, created by Henri Nestlé.

So, civilization has been fascinated by chocolate since the beginning of times, working hard and using innovation to improve the properties of this amazing dessert. Today, there are so many assortments of chocolates available; we can indulge in any we like!

Guitarists know a lot about their instruments–techniques, chords, songs etc. But what many guitarists don’t know is the history of the guitar. It’s understandable, because many people don’t feel this helps at all in actually playing the guitar. Still, it is helpful to know everything about the instrument–including the history.

The history of guitar is a debatable topic, as there are no concrete facts about the guitar and when exactly it first appeared. What is known, though, is that guitars or similar instruments have been around for over 5,000 years. Entire books could be written about the history of guitar, so in this article, we’ll just go over a timeline of how it is thought the guitar evolved.

o 1400 B.C: The Hittites play a four-string, guitar-like instrument. This four string instrument had soft, curved sides, which were somewhat similar to the current guitar. Also around this time, the Greeks produced a similar instrument which was modified by the Romans and became known as the cithara.

o By 1200 A.D.: There were two types of guitars. One type was known as the Moorish guitar (guitarra morisca). This guitar had a wide fingerboard, rounded back, and several sound holes. The type of guitar was the Latin guitar (guitarra Latina). The Latin guitar looked more like our current guitar with a narrower neck and just one sound hole.

o The late 1400’s: A new guitar, called the vihuela, evolved from the two types of guitar mentioned. The vihuela was a large instrument with double the strings of the Latin and Moorish guitars, a longer neck and ten or eleven frets. The Portuguese and Spanish courts preferred the vihuela over any other instrument for roughly 200 years.

o Until the late 1600’s: The vihuela, and another instrument called the lute, were more popular than the guitar. This changed when the popularity of the lute declined because it had too many strings and was too hard to play and tune. The vihuela was replaced by four and five course guitars of that time. Four course guitars had seven strings–a single high string and three pairs of other strings–while five course guitars had nine strings–a single high string and four pairs of other strings. Some feel that the addition of the fifth course during the 16th century, which gave the guitar greater flexibility, was the reason why the guitar became popular.

o By the beginning of the 1800’s: Some guitars used fan struts under the soundboard and featured six strings (like the modern guitar). Also changed during this time was the neck (which was raised), the fingerboard (which used ebony or rosewood), and the tuning pegs (which were replaced with machine tuners). Guitars like these are most similar to early classical guitars.

o By the late 1800s: A man named Antonio Torres Jurado changed the guitar dramatically by refining the strutting of the guitar. This allowed for as many as seven struts to be spread out like a fan under the soundboard. Additionally, the size of the body and the width of the neck were greatly increased. As a result of Jurado’s improvements, the guitar had greater bass response and volume. Jurado’s work made it possible for the guitar to meet the demands of both the solo performer and the concert stage.

o The Present: Our modern guitar is practically the same as the one made by Jurado.

As was previously said, this is but a brief introduction to the fascinating history of guitars. If you wish to find out more on certain types of guitars, such as the history of Acoustic, Electric or Bass guitars, you can check out our articles titled “The Acoustic Guitar”, “The Electric Guitar”, and “The Bass Guitar”.

During the fifties and later, vital, energetic, and rebellious youth produced their own music in contrast to traditional music, becoming a target for censors and conservatism. When I saw this book with an Elvis-like drawing on its cover, I had to pick it up, because it reminded me of the times when most of us in my generation were, musically speaking, in love with Elvis and his successors.

The type of music called rock music sprung up from peacetime America but was adopted by the youth through the entire world. Although it started as an act of a rebellion, rock music became the governing music form for the next few decades, eventually turning into a customary music genre and leaving its throne of rebellion to other types of music. Rock music involves a vocal melody accompanied by musical instruments such as guitars, drums, and keyboard instruments.

When rhythm and blues met country music, rock music was born. The book, “The History of Rock Music,” gives this type of historical information alongside with the biographies of and information about famous rock stars who determined and shaped the course of rock music from early on. In addition to the musicians, Dick Clark with his television show “American Bandstand” promoted the rock music and coerced its respectability by the general population.

Among the earlier artists mentioned are Little Richard, Elvis, Buddy Holly, Woodie Guthrie, and Bob Dylan, and from the sixties on come the Beatles, Mick Jagger, Keith Richards, Motown, Jerry Garcia and The Grateful Dead, The Beach Boys, The Doors, Janis Joplin, and Jimi Hendrix. Later, when hard rock surfaced, its representatives became Led Zeppelin, David Bowie, and Black Sabbath. From seventies on, singer-songwriters came into the music scene like Jackson Browne, James Taylor, and Joni Mitchell.

The book not only gives information about music groups and presents several features from actual history, but it also provides details on the instruments and the evolution of rock music trends to the end of the nineties, from before Elvis’s time to Curt Cobain’s grunge.

“The History of Rock Music” is a volume from the Masters of Music Series, in hardcover and 64 pages, with ISBN-10: 0764151371 and ISBN-13: 9780764151378.

The author, Andrea Bergamini, has written other books on music like Beethoven and the Classical Age, Music of the World, and Le rock. Also, a great deal of appreciation goes to the book’s illustrator, Ivan Stalio, who has illustrated numerous volumes such as: The Atlas of World Religions, Adapting to the Environment, The Animal Atlas, The History of Technology, Life Cycles, Mammals, and Plants.

With its large pages filled with bright photos, graphics, and illustrations, this young adult book is a delightful book to read and enjoy for people of all ages.

For a food that seems so familiar, most of us know surprisingly little about the real origins and history of chocolate. I counted myself in this group until very recently when I picked up a copy of a book titled ‘The True History of Chocolate”, by Sophie D. Coe and Michael D. Coe. Published in 1996, it’s 268 pages of meticulously researched, fascinating facts and “speculation” about the origin and development of the food we call chocolate.

I wonder how many of us would even recognize a cacao pod if one happened to fall on our head? Of course, such an event is highly unlikely unless one happens to be in a very small number of places in certain regions of the world. The cacao tree simply refuses to grow outside of a very narrow range of latitudes and weather conditions. Another crucial factor in the successful cultivation of the tree is making sure that the right insects are around to pollinate the flowers, a fact that wasn’t known when some early attempts were made to transplant the trees.

As the authors mention, if you hold a cacao pod in one hand and a piece of chocolate in any form in the other, you would never suspect that the one was made from the other. In fact, for nine-tenths of its long history, chocolate was drunk, not eaten. Consumption of solid chocolate by the masses is a relatively recent development. So how did chocolate get from the forests of Central America, where it began as drink for the royal courts of the Maya in the Yucatan Peninsula, to your pantry in the form of a Hershey Bar? Seems like a long trip, doesn’t it? Furthermore, why is chocolate thought of a product of Switzerland? How did the Swiss manage to dominate the chocolate world? Can you think of two more different environments than the jungles of the Yucatan and the Swiss Alps?

The story is more fascinating than you can imagine and involves Columbus, the Conquistadors, the fall of the Aztec Empire, the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution, and last but not least, Milton Snavely Hershey.

When first introduced to Europe, chocolate was only for the nobles, who endlessly debated it nutritional and medicinal properties. In fact, because of the dominance of the Catholic Church, long debates were held as to whether or not chocolate was actually a food and whether, as such, eating it broke the fasting rules in place at the time.

The generally accepted first meeting between Europeans and the cacao bean took place in 1502 when Columbus anchored off the island of Guanaja, north of mainland Honduras. It was his fourth voyage, and he unfortunately died without ever tasting chocolate.

What followed was the Spanish conquest of Central America and the eventual return of cacao to Europe where it did not actually receive rave reviews. But the story is long one, and to get all the details, pick up a copy of the book. It’s a wonderful story, a great history lesson, and may leave you with the desire to sample not just Hershey Bars, but some of the other more “exotic” chocolate products that are available these days.

Note: You may freely publish the above article in any way you wish, as long as the author’s name and links are left intact.

Hunting whips have been in use from as early as the 1900’s. They were generally sold as ‘ladies’ or ‘gents’ according to the size, weight and length of the whips. Since men are larger than women, the whips for men often had longer, thicker and had heavier handles. In general, whips are divided into two types. One type is a firm stick that is designed to strike directly to inflict pain and the other type is flexible, which is designed to swing in a particular manner to inflict fear of pain. The hunting whip is a combination of both featuring a firm stick and a flexible lash.

Hunting whips are not meant for horses even though a rider carries it along. It is used to remind the hounds to keep away from the hooves of the horses and also as a communication device for the hounds. The whip is similar to a crop except for the stock, which is stiff rather than flexible. The stock is generally made of cane, which is varnished to give it a darker appearance, or covered with leather, horsehair, linen or whalebone. The covering provides better grip during the rainy hunting season. The modern cane stocks come with a steel line to make them more difficult to break. The stock features a long silk or cord lash on one end and a hook on the other end. The hook end is used to open and close gates during hunting by the rider and the colour of the lash vary from hunt to hunt.

Thong is an important part of the whip, which helps the rider keep a firm hold on to it. It can be wrapped around the hand or the wrist to prevent it from dropping off. Thong also prevents the hounds from coming too close to the rider and the horse’s feet preventing any accidents. The thong can be hung across the riders’ arms when not in use.

The handles of the whips are usually made with stag horn, ivory or silver representing the rich lavish lifestyle of the aristocrats however the modern hunting whips are replacing this with buffalo horn or synthetic handles. The materials used to make whips are different today as earlier materials used to make whips are not practical anymore due to endangered animals and environmental issues. However, there are many hunting whips for sale on the Internet or antique shops for those antique collectors.

Chihuahua history is very fascinating and goes back hundreds of years. The Chihuahua got its name from the state of Chihuahua Mexico. It is thought by some to be the oldest breed of dog in North and South America. It might even date back to the pre-Columbian Mexico.

Spanish Conquistadors likely brought this dog back to Europe from the new world. The Spanish conquistadors kept these dogs as symbols of higher class. When Columbus was in the Americas he wrote a letter to the King of Spain describing a tiny dog that would appear to be the Chihuahua.

Chihuahuas are thought to be descended from dogs known as Techichi, named after their owners the Toltecs. It is thought that the crossing of the Techichi and the miniature Chinese dogs give us what we know at the Chihuahua today. Toltecs used these dogs in religious ceremonies.

There is evidence that this breed has existed for thousands of years, and clay Aztec sculptures were found resembling Chihuahuas. The Aztecs believed that this dog was a spirit guide for the dead and so when the owner died, the dog was also killed to be a guide for the spirit.

In terms of actual Chihuahua history there is still some debate on whether the Spanish Conquistadors brought this dog into the new world, or whether the dog was originally in the new world at the time of their arrival.

Excavated early remains of Chihuahuas found in the Americas shows that they used to be much larger than the present day Chihuahua. The reason for this scientist think is because the present day Chihuahua was breed with smaller Chinese dogs, most likely the Chinese Crested Dog.

The American Kennel Club first recognized the Chihuahua breed in 1904. There are two types of Chihuahuas recognized, the short haired and the long haired. The breed standard is for a weight of 6 pounds and a height no taller than 9 inches.

It is the smallest breed of dog in the world, and the current world record holder for the smallest living dog is a Chihuahua named Boo Boo. Although its true origins may never be known, Chihuahua history is very fascinating.

What is a History Buff? There are a lot of people that consider themselves History Buffs, but are they really? Does it depend on how much you like or enjoy historical subjects? There is no way for some one to know everything about a historic subject, so what is the scale? How much do you need to know to be considered a buff? It seems the phrase History Buff is thrown around a lot. Over 800 people on Twitter consider themselves to be History Buffs, while over 23,000 people mention history in their profile. The History Channel page on Facebook has over 4,000,000 Likes! How can you become a History Buff?

How to become a History Buff:

1. Choose a time period or subject – figure out what topic gets you excited about. What do you want to know more about? Did you watch a movie that made you want to learn more? Maybe the movie 300 got you thinking about Ancient Greece and the Spartans, or Saving Private Ryan made you think about World War II.
2. Go to your local library – find all the non-fiction books you can about your specific subject and start reading. Remember sometimes you might need some background information to give you a better understanding about your subject. If you are reading about the Roman Empire, you should understand the Roman Republic that came before it.
3. Check Amazon or Local Bookstore – if you find a book you really like or a new book comes on the market, it might be time to purchase your own copy.
4. Check the Television Listings – The History Channel is dedicated to all sorts of historical subjects, check to see if there is a show or documentary about your topic. Channels such as, A&E, TLC, PBS, and others air documentaries all time. Make sure you don’t miss one on your topic.
5. Take Notes – write down all the facts that you think are important. Highlight and write in the margins in your books. Make sure you keep all the information together for quicker reference.
6. Join Online Discussion Groups – search Google for history discussion groups were you can discuss your topic with other people knowledgeable about it.
7. Find Historical Societies or Museums – check around for local historical societies or museums that maybe related to the subject you are studying.
8. Review and Reread – review what you have learned about your topic and reread some of your favorite books. You might find something that you missed the first time around.
9. Expand Your Topic – once you have gone through all the sources on your subject, think about expanding your topic. There is probably an area you read about related to your first subject that comes up over and over again, repeat these steps for the new topic.

Follow this list of instructions and you’ll amaze your friends will your knowledge, or just start annoying them!