Hydra as an Animal

Hydras are interesting creatures. They do not have a brain, but have a nerve net distributed over their whole body. Despite this they have a range of behaviours.

Collecting Hydra

Hydras of various species are very widespread in freshwater habitats. Some of them are so small that they are likely to be overlooked unless you are looking very carefully. Another thing that can make them difficult to see is the fact that they contract to what looks like a small blob of jelly if they are disturbed. Hydra viridis can be small enough to live on the underside of the “leaves” of Lemna Minor, the Lesser Duckweed. Since this species is usually bright green from the algae in its cells it is extremely difficult to see in this situation.

Many people have hydra in their aquariums, with the aquarium owner being completely unaware of the Hydra, and the hydra causing no problems.

To collect Hydra, the simplest way is to go to a lake or similar body of freshwater and gently pass a fine net through plants growing in the water of the lake. With reasonable luck you will have caught more than one type of Hydra in your net.

Animal

A Hydra is a carnivorous animal. It feeds on small living things. However some hydras especially, Hydra viridis, have zoochlorellae algae cells in their bodies. These algae photosynthesize; producing sugars and other things which are used both by the algae and by the Hydra. The species of Hydra with algae can live for a considerable time without catching any prey. Presumably the Hydra also supplies the Algae with its mineral requirements. Some of these things like nitrates would actually be waste products of the Hydra’s metabolism.

This arrangement is similar to the marine corals, which are related to hydra.

Food

Hydras catch small animals. In many cases they are eating microscopic creatures like ciliates, but a large Hydra can eat adult Daphnia.

The tentacles at the top of a Hydra touch something in the water and stinging cells called nematocysts are triggered, shooting out tiny darts at the thing that touched the hydra. These darts are attached to the hydra polyp by very fine threads. The darts are barbed and attach themselves to the potential prey, injecting poison. This is the same mechanism used by jellyfish in the sea. Many jellyfish have stings that are painful to Humans and some can be fatal. As far as I know, Humans cannot feel the stings of Hydras.

The food item is then reeled in and transferred to the hydra’s “mouth” at the top, surrounded by the tentacles. The food is then digested as much as the Hydra is capable of and the nutrients adsorbed. The undigested parts of the Hydra’s meal are expelled through the “mouth”.

Respiration

Hydras do not have specialized organs for absorbing the dissolved Oxygen from the water. This is done through the skin. Apparently the movement of Oxygen into the Hydra and of carbon dioxide out of it is by diffusion although active transport of the gasses cannot easily be ruled out.

The Hydras which have algae in them would also get Oxygen as a waste product of the photosynthesis carried out by the algae. In turn the algae would use carbon dioxide which is a waste product of Hydra metabolism.

Movement

Hydras are sessile. That is, they are attached to surfaces rather than being free floating like jellyfish. But they do have ways of moving around. They can move slowly by the base flowing as if it were an amoeba. They can also move like an inchworm by looping their top and attaching it, alternating between their top and their base. The third way they can move is to release themselves from their surface and float around hoping to find a better place to live.

Light

Hydras do not have eyes or similar specialised light sensitive organs. However, their bodies allow light to pass through them. Nerves appear to have some sensitivity to light, so it is not surprising that Hydras can sense light and dark.

Most species of Hydra avoid the light, but the ones with algae in them are attracted to the light. This is a logical thing to expect because Hydras with algae need the light for photosynthesis, while the sorts without algae are more visible both to their prey and to their predators in well lighted areas. This suggests that there is a quite big advantage for the Hydra to be able to form a symbiotic association with algae.

Hydra Immortality

Of course living things can die. More than that, the animals and plants we are most familiar with will grow old and die of old age related things, this is known as senescence. This does not apply to all living things. A bacterium can divide into 2 near identical “daughter” cells. That is, both the new cells have equal right to be considered as the original. This has apparently been going on for however many years that bacteria have been in existence.

Apart from things like bacteria there are some animals which may not grow old in the same sense that most do. It can be difficult to prove this although it is often possible to disprove it.

Some studies suggest that hydra do not die from old age and in theory could live for ever. The life of an individual Hydra is a dangerous one and the average life is quite short. Although it might be difficult to prove, a very old Hydra could exist.

Brain

A brain is a concentration of nerves. In theory there is nothing to prevent an animal having more than one brain. In fact it appears that some types of dinosaur did have two brains.

Hydras do not have brains in this sense. Instead they have a nerve net distributed fairly evenly throughout their bodies. This works for their life style.

Reproduction

The most common way for Hydras to reproduce is asexually, with a new, genetically identical, individual budding off from the parent Hydra. Hydras can multiply very quickly under favourable conditions.

They can also reproduce sexually. Some types form resistant eggs so that the drying out of a pond will not necessarily get rid of all the Hydras.

Regeneration

If a Hydra were cut up, then as long as each piece had all three types of Hydras vegetative cell, it can grow into a complete animal.

Reacting to a series of dog attacks and problems in recent years in the Counties, both Stevens County and Spokane County in Washington State (and nationwide) have adopted new regulations for dealing with potentially dangerous and vicious dogs. Since I am a citizen of Stevens County, I will speak to the new Title 20 ordinance adopted in December 2007 by Stevens County.

Stevens County’s new set of dangerous dog laws is designed to put the accountability on the owner and not just the animal. At this date, Stevens County does not have any designated animal control authority other than the Stevens County Sheriff. Under its new Title 20 ordinance, the Stevens County Sheriff’s Office now has more authority to find that a dog is dangerous or potentially dangerous and impose corrective actions to protect the public. Owners are given further opportunity to appeal the Stevens County Sheriff’s designation to the courts.

By definition under the newly adopted Title 20, a “potentially dangerous” dog is one that has a known propensity, tendency, or disposition to cause an unprovoked attack or to cause injury or otherwise threaten the safety of humans or domestic animals. A “dangerous dog” has caused unprovoked severe injury to a human being, or has killed a domestic animal while off the owner or keeper’s property, or has previously been found “potentially dangerous” and aggressively attacks again or endangers safety. Both the “potentially dangerous” dog and “dangerous dog” designations under the Stevens County, Washington Title 20, carry similar consequences for owners and their dog(s). Stevens County has imposed more restrictive measures under the “potentially dangerous” dog designation than under current Washington State law.

If a dog is found to be “dangerous” or “potentially dangerous”, the owner must register the dogs within 14 days of the County Sheriff’s determination, and the registration will only be accepted if the owner agrees to placement of an identifying microchip inserted in the animal, payment of the first registration fee and an annual registration fee, and to keep the dog enclosed indoors or in a proper enclosure. Proper enclosure is defined under Title 20 as a kennel that contains an enclosed top as well as sides. If the dog is allowed outside the enclosure, it must be muzzled and restrained with a 3-foot chain with a 300 lb. tensile strength. An owner cannot sell or transfer ownership, custody or residence of the dog without notifying the County Sheriff and notifying the new owner of the dog’s record with an acknowledgment signed by the new owner of the terms and conditions of his maintenance while in Stevens County, Washington. In extreme cases, presumably the County Sheriff as the animal control officer has the authority to decide if the dog must be destroyed. While I can understand the adoption of Title 20 and its ordinances and the “dangerous dog” designation and the purpose and merit behind its adoption, the “potentially dangerous dog” designation appears to be nearly impossible to regulate and this particular designation is ripe for abuse.

I am relatively certain many of us have experienced a difficult neighbor a time or two. For whatever reason, certain individuals seem to have nothing better to do than complain about their neighbors’ pets, the broken down automobile, hobbies, or anything else that may annoy them at any given time. In fact for some people, they seem to make complaining their hobby. In rural Stevens County, Washington and other rural areas that are moving rapidly toward development, there will always be conflicts between country neighbors with differing views on a rural lifestyle. The Title 20 “potentially dangerous” dog designation provides these people with just one more avenue for conflict and additional ammunition for harassment. An additional danger for citizens is that the entire hearing process as applied through the Stevens County Sheriff’s Office, under both designations, appears to be fundamentally flawed and unconstitutional.

I have spoken to several residents in the County where harassment by a nuisance neighbor, through Title 20, appears to have occurred to their detriment. The new Stevens County, Washington Title 20 “potentially dangerous dog” designation seems to make it particularly easy for a nuisance neighbor to harass another neighbor. Since the recent adoption of Title 20 in December 2007, I have discovered that several citizens have been struggling to defend against false and/or frivolous allegations about their companion dogs. One citizen found herself the target of a nuisance allegation by a problem neighbor and the Stevens County Sheriff concerning her “potentially dangerous” dogs, after her complaining neighbor’s dog pulled her show dog through her own fence and killed it. Apparently a complaint was lodged by the nuisance neighbor against the deceased show dog as a preemptive strike. How many Stevens County citizens have simply forfeited their right to ownership of a companion dog because of nuisance allegations they could not afford to defend and unconstitutional actions being taken by Stevens County public officials? All a nuisance neighbor may now have to do is claim that a dog barked at them, and the dog’s owner may be hit with a predetermined “potentially dangerous” dog designation, fees, an embarrassing public hearing and media coverage, and other severe restrictions on their dog by the Stevens County Sheriff.

I suppose the best part of the new Title 20 ordinance is the appeal process since a dog is already predetermined by the Stevens County Sheriff to either be “dangerous” or “potentially dangerous” prior to a hearing. However, many poor people do not have the resources to legally fight back against an initial and possibly frivolous determination by the Stevens County Sheriff in advance of a public hearing. Attorney fees, at a rate of $200 per hour to defend against this type of nuisance action, may be in the range of $2,000 – $40,000+.

There are other potential problems in carrying out the new Stevens County Title 20 ordinances. The problems I reference below, as well as others I have not highlighted in this article, have already emerged in other states and Washington State counties — King and Spokane County, Washington, for example. The courts in King County and Spokane County have recently ruled upon the controversial dangerous dog ordinances and procedures. In King County, for example, in the recent dangerous dog case of Mansour v. King County tried by animal law attorney Adam Karp, where Mansour was found to have been denied due process, the Washington State Court of Appeals ruled: “Due process essentially requires the opportunity to be heard at a meaningful time and in a meaningful manner”. . . “An adequate standard of proof is a mandatory safeguard.” ” The standard of proof instructs the fact finder “concerning the degree of confidence our society thinks he should have in the correctness of the factual conclusions” . . .. While the Stevens County Sheriff continues to sit as the investigating official, the judge and jury in these potentially dangerous and dangerous dog cases, how much confidence can the public place in any factual conclusion made by the Sheriff’s Office?

In Spokane County in a “potentially dangerous dog” case, Judge Austin of the Spokane County Superior Court ruled that Spokane’s “dangerous dog” ordinance is unconstitutional because it denies pet owners the right of due process, and that as a matter of law the administrative procedures used in the City of Spokane regarding “dangerous dog” determinations and appeals from those rulings violate citizens’ due process rights. In their current system, dogs tagged as “dangerous” by the city and its contractor, SpokAnimal, are deemed to be just that unless the owner can prove otherwise — flying in the face of the notion of presumed innocence. The judge ruled that the City violated (in this case) Patty Schoendorf’s rights by taking her property — her dogs –and intended to destroy them after a hearing where she was not allowed to cross-examine or impeach witnesses involved in the dog’s impoundment. She also wasn’t given access to documents in the City’s “dangerous dog” file, and the opportunity to rebut those allegations — another denial of due process guaranteed by the Constitution. The judge not only ordered Spokanimal to immediately release the dogs, he also ordered the City of Spokane to pay legal bills for a team of attorneys – Robert Caruso, Richard Lee and Cheryl Mitchell, animal law attorneys.

While I would like to say that I trust the Sheriff’s Animal Control Officers to ensure that there is a real danger to the public, the truth (and therein the problem) is that in Stevens County there is currently no separation of powers from the onset of the initial investigation, the Sheriff’s determination of “potentially dangerous dog”, and finally to the Sheriff’s ruling following a public hearing that a dog is “potentially dangerous”. The Stevens County Animal Control Authority (the Stevens County Sheriff’s Office) sits as the investigator, judge and jury. Where is our guaranteed system of checks and balances in this process? The following is generally the procedure used under the Stevens County “potentially dangerous” dog designation:

(1) When a complainant calls to make a report, he makes it to the Stevens County

Sheriff’s Office, the designated animal control authority in Stevens County;

(2) A Stevens County Sheriff’s Officer may be dispatched to the scene to presumably thoroughly investigate the dog incident and take an incident report. A thorough and complete investigation may or may not occur, and in fact the dog’s owner may not even be allowed to tell their side of the story to the Officer or see the complaint, the results of the investigation, and may not even be advised of the name of the complainant by the Sheriff’s Office. The Sheriff’s goal in these cases appears to be to hold back all relevant documents and evidence entirely from the accused pet owner until a day or two before the hearing, stating that the procedure is still in the “investigational stage”– similar to a criminal proceeding. The pet owner has no time to prepare a defense;

(3) After the Sheriff takes an incident report from the complainant, the owner of the alleged offending dog(s) is then promptly advised by a Stevens County Sheriff’s Officer that he/she must submit to photographing of his/her dog(s), prior to the dog owner receiving any kind of a notice or citation from the Stevens County Animal Control Authority (the Sheriff). Notice of the alleged incident may simply be a Sheriff’s Officer arriving on the doorstep or at your gate, and advising you that he is required to take photographs of your dogs as “part of the hearing process”. At this point, you may not even have notice of any hearing. The photographing process may or may not involve a Stevens County Sheriff’s Officer demanding entrance onto your private property or requesting entrance into your home, for the stated purpose of photographing your dog(s).

Citizens, please be aware that a dog is designated as “personal property” in the State of Washington and other states. The Washington State Constitution and U.S. Constitution protect individuals against unlawful searches and seizures concerning your personal property.

The simple act of entering onto private property for the purpose of taking photographs of personal property, without the direct or implied consent of the property owner and without a search warrant, is unlawful. Generally speaking, warrants are signed by judges or commissioners in criminal matters. At this point, this procedure is still considered a civil or administrative matter. There appears to be something inherently wrong with this process from the outset. (The rule that I have personally imposed is not to let anyone onto my property without my express invitation (or a warrant). My directive to this effect seems to work for most people.)

Of course, there are “exigent circumstances” exceptions under the law to the warrant requirement. Exigent circumstances generally arise when a law enforcement officer may have reasonable ground to believe that there is an immediate need to protect his life, the life of others, their property, or that of others, the search is not motivated by an intent to arrest and seize evidence, and there is some reasonable basis to associate an emergency with the area or place to be searched. None of these exigent circumstances is likely to exist in a Title 20 dangerous or potentially dangerous dog investigation which would allow a public official to trespass for the purpose of photographing dogs.

4) The owner of the alleged offending dog will then receive a certified letter or personal service by the Stevens County Sheriff’, notifying the dog’s owner that their dog has already been deemed a “potentially dangerous” dog or “dangerous dog” under their new Title 20 ordinance. The owner’s dog is deemed “guilty” before tried, based generally only upon a report made by a complainant. That complainant could be made by anyone with “axe to grind”. The dog is declared guilty in advance of a public hearing before the Stevens County Sheriff’s Department. The investigating agency (the Stevens County Sheriff’s Office) then amazingly plays the role of the judge and jury at this public hearing where the dog’s owner is required to prove that his/her dog is not dangerous, or potentially dangerous. Please be aware that you (as the accused) are not required to prove anything. The burden of proof falls upon your accusers to make their case, and not you. Public testimony will be taken by the Sheriff, and you will receive a subsequent notice of his final ruling. This entire process usurps constitutional protections afforded each citizen under Washington State and U.S. Constitutions. Any hearing in a “potentially dangerous dog” or “dangerous dog” case should be set before an impartial judge or hearing officer. The Sheriff cannot rule on issues as a matter of law.

It is my understanding and belief that any public hearing conducted by a public official(s) in Washington State must follow the law and procedures under either the Washington State Open Meetings Act or Administrative Procedures Act. Since a dangerous dog hearing does not really meet the criteria under the Open Meetings Act, the hearing process should follow the Washington State Administrative Procedures Act. If you are not familiar with this Act, familiarize yourself with it and your rights under this Act. This law can be found in the public library under 34.05 RCW (Revised Code of Washington). Insist that any dangerous dog hearing you may be a party to comply with these lawful procedures.

Citizens, please take heed! The Stevens County Title 20 dangerous dog ordinances are dangerous to you in that they can potentially escalate into a criminal matter if you do not comply with the severe restrictions imposed on your dog, or if the dog is again the subject of a complaint. You must contest the letter/notice that you receive from the Stevens County, Washington Sheriff’s Office and promptly return it via Certified US Mail or Delivery Confirmation. Also enclose your own letter stating you contest your dog’s predetermined designation by the Sheriff, and that you demand a lawful hearing before a bona fide hearing officer conducted under the Washington State Administrative Procedures Act. If you do not sign and return the Notice from the County Sheriff, the “potentially dangerous dog” designation is automatically applied by the Sheriff to your dog through your inaction.

Once you have been deemed to own a “potentially dangerous” dog or “dangerous” dog, all regulations, restrictions, fees and other penalties under the new ordinances apply to you and your dog. The Title 20 regulations, restrictions, fees and other penalties have severe consequences for both you and your dog. If you do not comply with these new regulations following the final determination of your “potentially dangerous dog” or “dangerous dog”, then you possibly may be issued a criminal citation. Potentially you may be thrust into the position of defending yourself as a criminal. Moreover, your homeowner’s insurance may be cancelled or be prohibitively expensive in the future, and you may be forced to carry an expensive bond if you intend to keep your dog in the County.

The Title 20 dangerous dog ordinances can be dangerous to your health and welfare and your dog’s health and welfare, particularly if you do not exercise your constitutional rights. I would highly recommend hiring an attorney, if you can afford one. Hire someone who specializes in animal law, for instance one of the attorneys mentioned in this article. If you cannot afford one and are low income, call CLEAR at their toll free number in Washington State to see if you can qualify for free legal assistance. Other possible sources of legal assistance are the Gonzaga Law School, or the Washington State Bar Association who may have a referral to a pro bono (free) attorney.

Please exercise your civil and constitutional rights and familiarize yourselves with this new set of laws under Stevens County, Washington – Title 20. Please do not allow your valuable rights to be trampled upon by public officials or you may lose them. Do not allow yourself to become their victim.

Last but not least, please recognize and be aware that you do not have to allow anyone onto your private property, in most cases, without a warrant. It surprises me that many citizens do not know this. If there is any doubt in your mind, please respectfully ask the person requesting permission to enter onto your private property “do you have a warrant?” Express to them that without a signed warrant, that person does not have your consent to enter onto your private property. This rule generally applies to most everyone, public officials included, unless they have an implied right to enter such as a meter reader. With respect to your private property rights, generally speaking, what applies to any other private citizen who wants entrance to your property applies to public officials as well. Post your gates and property with “No Trespassing” and “Beware of Dog” signs to protect yourself — approximately every 50 feet. Also fence your property with at least a 5-6 foot fence if you own a dog, for additional protection. Electrify your fence, if necessary, if you are in a rural area. Fence chargers, including solar fence chargers, can be purchased for $30 and up and are quite effective as a deterrent to entrance and exit by animals.

I recognize that this article may not be “politically correct” in this climate as this is a sensitive issue right now. I am aware that it may anger those who are truly at risk or who have been victims of genuinely dangerous dogs. I agree that genuinely dangerous dogs are a threat to public safety. However, I submit that while the intent behind Title 20 and other dangerous dog laws is good and I agree with its intent, the process to apply and regulate under these laws has been poorly thought out and implemented in general by Stevens County, Washington and other counties around Washington State (and our nation) in trying to protect the public safety. In trying to protect the public health and safety, individual constitutional rights, due process, and privacy cannot be ignored. If you do not exercise your rights, you will forfeit those valuable rights guaranteed to you by the U.S. and Washington State constitutions. You also may be forced to relinquish your beloved family pet, euthanize it, move out of the County, or live with severe restrictions on the animal and very expensive insurance.

Matthew and I have traveled across most of Southern Africa, but decided that it was eventually time to head further north towards Zambia. The two of us have been on African safaris for the last two years, but for some reason we have never gotten as far as Zambia. Known as one of the last unscathed African wildernesses, Zambia is the place to appreciate nature.

Our dwelling

During our stay in Zambia, we stayed in a thatched cottage at the Luangwa Valley. Situated by the Luangwa River, we were in the perfect spot for game-viewing. Every now and again we witnessed a buck, elephants or a herd of buffalos coming to the riverbanks for their daily drink of water.

Staying in a cottage felt like heaven after months of sleeping in a tent on a paper thin mattress. Don’t get me wrong, both Matthew and I enjoy camping, but I think that after awhile you start to miss small luxuries such as a bed.

After a nice long shower, I sat on our veranda overlooking the valley at sunset. With so much beauty in the world, a sunset still is one of the most beautiful. It seemed dead quiet even though there were people having a good laugh in the background. All I really heard was the soothing sound of the water and birds calling softly to each other. I was at peace and soon joined by Matthew when he came back from the local supply shop with a bottle of wine.

The rest of the evening we enjoyed our dinner, some wine, but mostly the sounds of nature. Being on the road for almost two years now, I can say that the both of us have become more peaceful within. The topic of discussion was how many, or how little, people enjoy nature these days. Matthew was making the point that he felt people would enjoy life more if they could be surrounded by nature more, go camping, safari or even just picnicking. But life seems too rushed these days.

The land of the free

The following day we headed out in the early morning hours on our first day’s drive. Zambia is well-known for its vast protected wilderness areas. It’s the sad truth that Africa’s wildlife areas are rapidly disappearing thanks to economic growth and with it Africa’s wildlife, but countries like Zambia have been committed to saving Africa’s wildlife and their land.

The Luangwa Valley specifically is any bird-lovers paradise. According to the tourist information they have recorded over 400 bird species in this area alone. During our drive we saw quite a few Antelopes, buffalos and zebras. But it was only after lunch that we were granted a special scene of survival plays. Not everybody would enjoy witnessing the oldest war in nature, that between lions and hyena.

Lions are by far the stronger between the two groups, but hyenas have another factor counting in their favour: their numbers. This was a fight for territory. It’s a well known fact that specifically lion males hate hyenas with a passion. It was quite a big pride of lions, and it seemed like this was a no-contest match, but never underestimate the cunningness of hyenas. Using their even bigger numbers to intimidate, it seemed like the hyenas were going to win this one. But when a young male lion stormed forward, we knew it was the end.

The lions were too strong and soon the hyenas ran off. My heart racing throughout the entire ordeal, I did not know whether I should watch this display of hatred and dominance or simply look away, but the sounds alone were horrifying. Some would say they were lucky to witness such a fight, I say it was heartbreaking. Matthew tried to film as much of it as possible, but it was difficult trying to focus since it all happened so quickly. This was definitely very unusual spectacle to witness, as usually the game rangers are very careful not to take their tourists to the actual killing scenes, but rather the aftermath. When we spoke to the game-ranger he told us that we really did observe something rare, since most of these situations only happen at night. This time round, we were at the wrong place at the right time so to speak.

After that we headed back to the cottage. I think we were both a bit stunned after the episode. I’ve seen videos of this kind of fight before, but never in my life would imagine witnessing such a thing in real life.

Well however the fight happened, I’m sure that neither Matthew nor I would ever feel the same after that. It was the incident that would forever change our lives. It reminded us that there is more to life than the hustle and bustle of city life. That life is intended to be enjoyed and that you should experience every thrill wholeheartedly. Zambia proved to be one of the most thrilling African safaris we’ve ever experienced, and yes, we will go back!

Think about the word “intelligence”. What is meant by saying that an animal is intelligent? How can you tell whether animals are really intelligent? After all, animals cannot speak and they do not use words. They cannot express ideas nor can they learn history or spelling.

Still, animals are a capable of doing many things. Perhaps your goldfish swims to the surface looking for food when you move near its tank. Or your cat may ring the doorbell when it wants to enter the house. Many other animals can even do tricks and tasks. Circuses are filled with dancing bears, playful sea lions, hard-working elephants and prancing horses. Such behavior is often wrongly perceived as signs of intelligence. As you’ll see, performing tricks is not truly a sign of intelligence. Intelligence is the ability to reason. It is the sudden flash of an idea, or the ability to solve a new problem directly and also by using previous experiences. Performing tricks and tasks do not require the ability to think, to reason on, or to have ideas.

Tricks can be mastered through special kinds of learning. One way of learning is through trial and error. Another is through conditioning responses. It is important to understand how such learning behavior works. Then we will be able to understand the differences between tricks and truly intelligent behavior.

One of the hardest problems for psychologists is to figure out ways to test intelligence. Conditioned responses are not signs of intelligence. Nevertheless, they are part of an animal’s behavior, so they may help psychologists compare differences among the learning styles of different animals. Animals are also conditioned in other ways. They can learn to avoid a place or an object by being given a mild, harmless electric shock. Some can even be forced to change their normal behavior. Almost all animals from the flatworm up can be conditioned. Another kind of learning takes place through trial and error. The most famous kind of trial and error method is the maze.

Mazes are all based on the same idea; that is, an animal that is placed in an entrance must find the exit. As it proceeds, it finds a series of branches. The animal must make a choice at each branch or fork. If it chooses the wrong one, it comes to a dead end. Then it must go back to take the other path. After a number of times the animal can run through the maze without making mistakes. The reward at the end is a piece of food for the hungry animal. Mazes can be very simple or very difficult, depending on the objectives of the psychologists. Experiments have shown that ants can master very complicated mazes, as well as frogs, turtles, rats, cockroaches and crabs.

Another way to study trial and error at learning is to place an animal in a box. Food is placed outside and the animal can reach the food only by unlocking a door. Then the animal must open the same door to get back into the box. In both cases the problem is the same: figuring out a lock to open a door. It has been found that raccoons can learn to open really complicated locks. Monkeys can also open locks in a special order, but are sometimes difficult to work with because of their bad tempers. At first, humans took as long as monkeys to open locks in a special order. But once they learned, they were much faster in opening them. The reason humans took so long is a fairly simple one. There is no way to figure out the order by looking at the locks because learning the order is a form of trial and error learning. Insight or reasoning does not help here any more than in mazes. Thus, in the first stages of trial and error learning, humans were not fast either.

Everybody likes to have cute and cuddly stuffed animals in their home. Kids have a fascination for their stuffed animals, and some of them like to cuddle them all the time. The most important thing about stuffed animals, is that they need to be cleaned regularly. Stuffed animals accumulate dust and dirt very fast, and if not cleaned regularly might result in dust allergy items, which is quite dangerous. So when you buy stuffed animals, either for your home decor, or for your kid to play with, you should have an inkling as to how to keep them clean. Cleanliness is very important for everything, especially when it is kid’s stuff.

The companies that manufacture these stuffed animals provide, instructions as to how you would clean them. However there are some basic things that should be taken care of for any stuffed animal. Keeping them clean is very important for the child’s good health and there are some best ways to clean them. They get dirty easily because your kid will never leave it for a minute, whether kids plays hide and seek in the backyard, or watch TV having snacks or even when they sleep. The tag along with the toy has all the instructions of how to wash them. It is clearly written there whether you can machine-wash them, dry them or about the temperature of the water or do they need to be bleached or not. Everything is provided with the stuffed animals written on the tag and you just have to follow them.

There are lots of ways in which you can clean your stuffed animals and if the animals can be machine-washed it is the easiest way. Just tie the animal in a pillowcase and gentle wash it in the machine. But if the stuffing is of such material that cannot be washed in water then you can sprinkle some baking soda on it and set aside for some time. Then either brush it off or just shake the animal and the stuffed animal is clean. If there is some spot on the toy that has to be cleaned up you should dry the spot and the put the baking soda on it and after few minutes brush the spot gently or a little harder as is the requirement. To dry the animals you can put them near a dehumidifier and in 2-3 days it will get fully dried up and there will be no harm to the fur or the fine hair. For daily and regular cleaning you can just brush it off and it is done.

When young children play with the toys each and every toy should be well cleaned and hygienic. This also comes under the safety measures that should be taken regarding your child and his playthings. You should follow the instruction guide of the toy because it depends upon the stuffing, which allows you to clean the animal in a particular way.

One of the major reasons why most of our precious animal species are getting extinct is poaching. Even though there have been laws making the practice illegal, the poachers continue perpetuating their selfish aims not knowing what kind of disservice they are doing to the biosphere. However, some people practice private farming as a way of protecting these endangered animal species. Does it help endangered animals in the actual sense and is it practical? The answer is yes. Unlike poaching, profit-oriented farming that has been legalized causes an increase in the number of the endangered species.

A good example is the increase of black as well as white rhinoceros in the southern hemisphere whose population has grown due to private farming. Dr. Richard Emslie who is a scientist at IUCN attests to the fact that private farming has been of great help in safeguarding these animal species due to effective enforcement of the law making it easier for local communities to participate fully in conservation programs. It is also a way of helping the government safeguard these animals keeping in mind that the government has a lot on its back.

With substantial economic incentives to private endangered animal farmers such as rewarding those taking care of rhinos, it is likely that poaching activities will go down. The private farmers only need to be assured of the economic gains that they will accrue from private animal farming and they will take up the role to protect endangered animal species.

Private farming of turtles in China has also seen an increase in the number of the specie, though conservation experts argue that the farming has a negative impact on wild turtles as it reduces their population. In this modern era where most governments are concentrating on safeguarding the interests of the increasing population, private farming is the only solution to safeguarding endangered animal species.

Yet another marvel of Mother Nature is on the offing at the Nairobi Animal Orphanage where recently a unique fellowship between a yellow baboon and a bush baby was forged. For those of us who may recall the story of Owen the tortoise and Mzee the hippo at Haller Park or the lioness who adopted a baby Oryx, then this story begins to feel like déjà vu.

The year-old Owen was rescued on 27 December 2004 when the Asian Tsunami separated him from his family leaving him alone in the Indian Ocean. Owen was brought to Haller Park where he found friendship in the most unlikely creature, a 130 year-old giant Aldabran tortoise name Mzee.

One year before this in January 7, 2003, a spectacular friendship was forged between a lioness and a baby Oryx in Samburu wildlife reserve. In a radical departure from its instincts, the lioness protected the little calf for 15 days since its birth. Ordinarily it would have killed the Oryx for a meal. Instead, the predator escorted it around the Samburu wildlife and kept away other carnivorous beasts.

Fast forwarding to our present story, it is said that the two animals led different lives in different locations and as fate would have it, found each other at the orphanage. The bush baby was brought from Karatina while the baboon had been abandoned in Maralal where it was rescued and brought to the orphanage.

Perhaps coming from two troubled pasts and in pursuit of love and affection, it was no wonder the bond between the two grew this strong. The baboon plays the role of ‘mother’ and protector to the bush baby which seems to be enjoying the attention and protection it is receiving and savouring every moment.

Next time you are at the Nairobi Animal Orphanage, be sure to check out these two – they will thrill you if not set you on a path of reflection as to how animals have managed to crack it – that love regardless of gender, race, social status, origin or political affiliation, is the most powerful tool we can use in this world to forge lasting peace. If humans observed these simple principles of life, the world would not witness such atrocities as seen in Rwanda, Darfur and other places in the world – it would be a wonderful place to live. We too can do it – the animals have!

Hospice Tails: The Animal Companions who Journey with Hospice Patients and their Families by Debra L. Stang is a short easy-to-read book of 14 stories about hospice patients and their beloved furry and even scaly animals.

Hospice Tails is about the significant role animals play in people’s lives until the very end.

• We learn how King the 100-pound Pit bull-Rottweiler hybrid protects and comforts 95-pound Lisa while thinking he’s a lap dog! We read about hospice social worker and author, Debra’s ability to overcome her fear of both King and the albino corn snake wrapped around her arm. Pretty impressive for a cat “purr-son!”
• We are in awe when Kim, a Vietnam veteran and surgical nurse, reaches out and “sees” her beloved Poodle-mix, Blue, welcoming her as she takes her final breath.
• We can’t help but laugh when we realize that Hal, who struggles to speak after two strokes, doesn’t want to pet the little furry rabbit, he wants to hunt it!
• Gus’ family shows up at the nursing home with Lightning, his beloved horse. (Yes, you read that right!)
• We learn of the significant role Frankie the Chihuahua plays when he leaps higher than he’s ever jumped before in order to wake up exhausted caregiver, Alex, before Glenn takes his final breath.And then there’s Louisa who has a strict policy of “No animals in the house” Debra is given a lint brush to remove her cat’s fur from her clothing before entering Louisa’s immaculate house. After Louisa’s husband passes, Louisa harbors a secret.
• Animals are important family members. Social worker and author, Debra and the hospice nurse know this as they gain the trust of their client after comfort an uneasy Screwball.

These short Hospice Tails are inspirational and FUN. Debra serves clients as diverse as the animal family members who play a significant role in helping families cope with the end of life.

Antwerp Zoo has announced on its website the birth of a Malayan tapir. The pig-like animal, which is actually more closely related to rhinoceroses and horses than pigs, is endangered in the wild and its birth, last Saturday morning, was a coup for the zoo’s captive breeding program. All the animals born in the zoo this year will be given names beginning with the letter “I”, so the baby- a young female- has been named “Indira”, meaning “beautiful” in Sanscrit. Her mother, “Signora”, is one of the zoo’s females and her father is “Nico”: a nine-year old male from Rotterdam Zoo. 14-year old Signora has previously given birth to a daughter, Ganesha, and a son, James.

Unlike the adults, which are a plain brown color with a light saddle, baby tapirs are dark brown with white stripes and spots, which help to camouflage them from predators, such as tigers, in their native jungle habitat. The creatures, which live in Sumatra, Thailand, Malaysia and Myanmar, have a prehensile snout, like a shortened version of an elephant’s trunk, which they use to reach and pull plants into their mouths. In the wild, they spend a good deal of time in water, feeding on soft plants, cooling off and avoiding predators. Indira, who weighed approximately 5kg at birth (adults can weigh up to 300kg), has spent much of her first week sleeping indoors with her mother.

Tapirs take between 3 and 5 years to reach adulthood and live for between 25 and 30 years; there are thought to be only 1,500 to 2,000 in the wild. In an e mail interview, a spokeswoman said that Antwerp zoo is involved in a large number of international breeding programs to help endangered animals, but particularly focuses on 8 species, including the bonobo chimpanzee, the golden-headed lion tamarin and the okapi: a relative of the giraffe.

Animal tattoos have become very popular in the recent times. Different animals like butterflies, snakes, turtles, spiders and dolphins are being inked on the body parts of human beings nowadays. Lion and wolf tattoos are also very popular. Although wolf tattoo designs are mainly popular among men, still women are also having it on their skin nowadays. Here in this article we will deal with these two popular animal tattoos for women.

A wolf tattoo generally comes in two definite designs-realistic or portrait looking style and cartoon like prints. Realistic style is more preferred by women. It has a deeper meaning and significance. Energy, power and aggression are some of the most significant meanings associated with a wolf tattoo design.

Wolves are generally considered as evil and menacing and thus you will find this kind of tattoo design only on those who are fascinated by fierceness of a wolf. This animal is also used as a mythical character and appears in many fables and folk tales. This adds charm and mystery as well as an element of danger. This creature is also related to cunningness and cruelty. These characters make the creature more bewitching and captivating.

However, many positive meanings also associated with this animal. It has an important role to play in the lives of North American tribes. It even symbolizes guidance and intelligence. As wolves live in pack, they even symbolize loyalty and unity.

Various designs of wolf tattoos are available. Some of the most popular one’s include only the head of the animal, the entire body of it, a wolf near the moon, a pack of wolves, howling wolf, snarling wolf and a wolf looking through the paws. All these different designs are imprinted on the body using colors such as white, black, red, dark blue and many others.

There are many places of imprinting this animal design on the body. If you plan to imprint a pack of wolves, the most preferred place on the body includes the stomach, back and shoulders. If you wish to have the head of the wolf marked on your body, you can make it done on your leg, arm, back of neck and waist. Wolf tattoo designs are usually donned by adventure lovers, bikers and hippie culture followers.

Lion tattoos have always been preferred by women because this design represents female superiority in its highest form. Most of the women who choose to go for this design want to show their place in the stars, meaning it is just a symbol of astrology.

Different designs of lion tattoos are available. Most of the women prefer to go for pattern that depicts a realistic lion. The design of this approach focuses the lion either on a distant object or focuses its captivating eyes and flowing lines of savanna from where it came and beckons you with its eyes. Some of the designs are done so beautifully that you won’t feel like moving your eyes from it. You can literally spend hours gazing into the design. Some of the other designs of this tattoo art include tribal styles and cartoonish lions.